A Consumer Perspective of Iconic Brands in a Danish Context

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A Consumer Perspective of Iconic Brands in a Danish Context

A Tuborg Case Study

Master’s Thesis

Brand and Communications Management

Ole Lysgaard Reeslev (123702) Supervisor: Lars Bech Christensen

15. September 2020

Pages: 75 / Characters: 181.104

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Abstract

The holy grail of branding is to create an icon – a brand like Coca-Cola, Harley-Davidson, Apple or Nike that generates seemingly invincible brand equity because it represents an important cultural ideal. These established iconic brands have roots in the excessively materialistic consumer culture of USA which harbours the perfect conditions for the creation of such a brand. Accordingly, previous cultural branding literature revolves around iconic brands in an American context. However, being a primarily sociocultural construct, the iconic brand phenomenon is believed to vary across cultures.

The aim of this paper is to take the first step towards identifying what characterises an iconic brand in a Danish context; a country with a significantly less materialistic consumer culture than USA. After scrutinising the established theories, the iconic brand concept was distilled down to three key aspects which will be explored through interviewing six demographically diverse Danish consumers on Tuborg, a prime candidate to be a Danish iconic brand, and interpreting their feelings and experiences on the background of cultural branding theory. Since this particular angle of study dives into unexplored territory, findings are designed to function to develop an impression of the cultural mechanisms behind the phenomenon in the Danish context and to build a platform for a potential future quantitative study.

Results support the proposition and indicate that Danish consumers have a slightly different comprehension of iconic brands compared to what is prevalent in the USA-based theory. This is primarily in terms of a slightly reduced level of emotional connection to iconic brands as well as valuing conformity as opposed to status differentiation in their identity projects. In a broader sense, results indicate that the iconic brand concept is individually contingent on each individual national culture, and raises the question if iconic brands in their purest sense only can exist in USA.

The results presented in this paper lay the foundation for future studies involving generalising and conceptualising the concept in Denmark, as well as exploring the concept in other cultures as and on the background of today’s globalised and digitalised world.

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1. Introduction

“People buy things not only for what they can do, but also for what they mean … modern goods are recognized as essentially psychological things which are symbolic of personal attributes and goals and of social patterns and strivings … each person aims to enhance his sense of self, and behaves in ways that are consistent with his image of the person he is or wants to be.” (Levy, 1959, pp. 118-119).

In its most primitive form, branding can be as simple as ‘creating value by using marks on objects to create meanings’ (Jones, 2017, p. 122). Piloted by Sidney Levy’s above declaration, the past half century has witnessed the evolution of brands from simple differentiation markers and indicators of quality, to complex carriers of meaning for consumers. Conventional branding theory establishes the assumption that this meaning is limited to functional and emotional associations cocreated in the interaction between brands and consumers. However, previously overlooked as a factor in meaning creation, there is evidence to suggest that the cultural environment has a significant part to play in the identity-based desires and anxieties of consumers (Hermansen, 2013). Consumers within a culture are found to share collective anxieties and desires and therefore rely on cultural symbolism within brands to stabilise their identity projects. This phenomenon, known as cultural branding, builds upon the idea that culture presents an opportunity to create an unprecedented depth of meaning for consumers through symbolism that is collectively desired in society.

Every culture has influential figures which represent distinct values that inspire people to see their lives and the world around them in a different light; commonly referred to as cultural icons. From Marilyn Monroe to The Beatles, Star Wars to the Eiffel Tower, Mohammed Ali to Mickey Mouse, cultural icons are anchors of meaning ever-present in society through being continually referenced in entertainment, journalism, politics and advertising (Holt, 2004). As powerful and visible symbols, cultural icons act as a society’s fundamental compass points and are placed on a pedestal in society since people identify strongly with and often rely on their symbolism in their everyday lives.

In today’s commercialised world, brands are developing an ever-growing presence in contemporary culture and are increasingly becoming recognised as meaningful building blocks in the identity projects of consumers (Bergvall, 2006). As such, consumers are actively employing brand symbolism on their perpetual quest for meaning to build their identities through consumption. A testament to the power of advertising, brands – just like personality figures and entertainment objects – are being found to have the ability to serve as reference points for important ideals within a culture and therefore have the potential to become cultural

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icons (Holt, 2004). Brands which establish themselves as cultural icons are referred to as iconic brands in branding literature, representing the penultimate level of brand equity.

To illustrate this phenomenon, Coca-Cola’s product is near-identical to its competitors’ from a functional standpoint. Yet, while competitor brands are built on conventional branding foundations (Pepsi focussing on superior taste, for example), Coca-Cola has come to dominate the market through connecting with American culture. Specifically, Coca-Cola has come to represent the utopian American way of life through cultural connections dating all the way back to World War II. As such, drinking a Coca-Cola is more that the consumption of a beverage, it is an experience of nostalgia and the utopian America of a time gone by, which has developed into a competitive edge that competitors simply cannot match. In fact, the cultural associations make the Coca-Cola brand so powerful that while the beverage itself is determined to taste worse than Pepsi in blind taste tests, it remains the market leader and is even found to be perceived to taste better when the brand is visible (Ariely, 2009). Similarly, consumers are magnetised to other iconic brands like Apple, Nike, Marlboro, Starbucks, Harley-Davidson and Levi’s which go beyond conventional branding to encapsulate ideals which carry great significance to the cultural group that they are associated with.

Cultural branding literature suggests that ascension to iconic brand status requires an entirely different blueprint to how brands traditionally are built. In his landmark How Brands Become Icons (2004), Professor Douglas B. Holt (hereafter Holt) reveals that some of the world’s most successful brands have built their success on cultural foundations through targeting culture at a macro-level, rather than defined consumer segments (Holt, 2016). The concept of iconic brands has been further explored by academics Beverland (2009) and Torelli & Stoner (2015), with general consensus among branding literature on what an iconic brand is from a theoretical standpoint, yet subtle differences existing in the concept from a strategic standpoint. The consensus in the literature is that for a brand to become iconic, it must become a cultural icon (Holt, 2004; Beverland M. , 2009; Torelli & Stoner, 2015). It is argued that a brand doesn’t become a cultural icon as a consequence of commercial success, but rather that its ability to connect with culture is the catalyst for its commercial success. Real-world evidence presents cultural branding as an immensely powerful tool, capable of raising the ceiling for brands with an untouchable differentiation point, intense brand loyalty and unprecedented brand equity.

Perhaps as a result of cultural branding’s recent inception, literature on the subject almost exclusively focusses on American brands. Upon closer consideration, the majority of the iconic brands in circulation are in fact American brands. As a stereotypically materialistic nation that has been churning out cultural icons for decades, USA harbours the perfect conditions for the development of iconic brands. Indeed, there are significantly fewer standout iconic brands with origins outside of America, presenting an interesting angle for

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studying the phenomenon of iconic brands in the significantly less materialistic national culture of Denmark.

A case study of Tuborg – a brand which has tightly knitted itself into the cultural fabric of Denmark with over a century of iconic advertising – presents an opportunity to explore the elusive iconic brand phenomenon outside of the cultural icon ‘greenhouse’ that American culture represents.

1.1. Problem Outline

A very niche area of branding, the cultural branch of branding represents relatively uncharted territory, and only the past two decades have seen the emergence of literature detailing the iconic brand phenomenon.

While perhaps a defendable starting point, current literature bases its research on the strategic perspective and on American brands within an American context.

The majority of the established theory surrounding iconic brand is constructed based on case studies of established iconic brands from the strategic level. These theories based on brand genealogies and therefore do not have consumer evidence to support the studies empirically. This is considered a significant shortfall since the iconicity of brands is partially a social construct and it is believed to be fundamentally consumers who determine the iconic status of a brand. This paper will attempt to deconstruct the established theories into consumer-oriented characteristics in order to present the consumers’ angle of the iconic brand concept.

As a vertical individualistic nation (see appendix 1), American society places high value on individual identity and status (Torelli & Rodas, 2017). Classified as a masculine society in terms of Hofstede’s dimensions, being able to show success in life through achievement and power is a great motivator in American society (Hofstede, 2020). This is primarily defined in terms of consumption, expressed through the neighbourhood they live in, the car they drive, the clothes they wear, the beverages they drink, and so on. This distinctly materialistic culture serves as the perfect canvas for the creation of cultural artefacts and is believed to stand as a key reason that America has a long history as a conveyor belt producing cultural icons. The individualistic and status-oriented nature of American consumers is considered fuel for these icons and there is a strong attachment of the population to these figures. On the background of this, American society represents ideal conditions for the creation of iconic brands.

Denmark, on the other hand, is a horizontal individualistic nation which values equality in terms of status and avoids status differentiation (Torelli & Stoner, 2015). As a feminist society, quality of life is the sign of success and ostentatiousness is not admirable, highlighted by Janteloven (Hofstede, 2020). As brands assume greater value in an American society where identity and achievement have elevated importance (Kravets & Örge, 2010), it is fair to assume that brands have lesser connotations in a Danish society which emphasises equality and social modesty and to a lesser degree defines themselves through consumption. Cultural icons and by

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extension iconic brands are fundamentally a social construction, and as such it isn’t unreasonable to suggest that perhaps iconic brands can only exist (as we know them) in overwhelmingly materialistic cultures such as the one found in America. This poses the question of whether iconic brands can exist in a cultural ecosystem like Denmark’s and indeed what characterises an iconic brand in this setting.

Due to a lack of exploration into the topic in a Danish context, Denmark doesn’t have any confirmed iconic brands. It does, however, have a number of brands which stand out as strong brands with a high cultural significance for Danish consumers. Among these are brands such as Bang & Olufsen, Lego, Georg Jensen and Tuborg. Of these, Tuborg is thought to carry powerful cultural expressions and also exists in the beer product category where established iconic brands have been created in other cultures (Budweiser and Corona, for example). As such, the phenomenon of iconic brands in a Danish setting has been chosen to be explored through a case study of Tuborg, with an aim to deepen knowledge of cultural branding in a Denmark; a considerably less materialistic setting compared to the origins of established iconic brands.

1.2. The Tuborg Brand

Since brewing its first beer in 1875, Tuborg has established itself as not only the market leader (38% of the Danish beer market (Andersen J. E., 2017)), but also as a brand that is widely known and valued for its cultural role in Danish society. Printed on the label of its beers, Tuborg states that it is ‘the whole of Denmark’s pilsner’

(Andersen J. E., 2017). Centred around this idea, Tuborg’s advertising campaigns throughout its history have had a strong focus on cultural relevance.

Tuborg’s connection with Danish society began over a century ago with ‘Den tørstige mand’ (the thirsty man), an entry in a poster competition Tuborg held in 1900 to commemorate their 25^th anniversary that eventually became a print ad (Ritterband, 2016). As an iconic milestone in the Danish advertising industry, this poster can be found in almost every bodega, bar or pub in the country. Fast forward to the 1970s, before product placement as an advertising technique had become common practice, Tuborg provided beers as props for Danish films and series such as Olsen Banden and Huset På Christianshavn. Olsen Banden in particular stands as a cultural icon in Denmark with a quarter of Denmark’s population repeatedly watching Egon, Benny and Kjæld hatching a plan over three Tuborg beers, hammering the association between Tuborg and these three men who represent ‘all Danish men’ into the minds of consumers (Lindberg, 2018).

Perhaps the most significant impression that Tuborg has left on Danish culture is J-dag. For over 30 years, Denmark has celebrated the release of its Julebryg (Christmas beer) on the first Friday of November. The event, which has become a cultural tradition, sees nightlife that overshadows New Year’s Eve as Tuborg’s Christmas elves (attractive women dressed in blue Santa dresses) visit over 400 bars and give out 25,000

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Tuborg Julebryg to guests, with the message ‘Glædelig Jul og Godt Tub’år’ (Merry Christmas and Happy Tuborg Year). Attached to this day is the iconic Tuborg J-dag television advertisement, which is the longest- running television commercial in Danish history and recognisable by most Danes just on the melody (Cremer, 2015). Julebryg is so anticipated that Tuborg sells 50 million Julebryg beers – around ten per adult citizen – in a matter of months (Øhrstrøm, 2014). In the summer, Tuborg is the main sponsor for a number of big and culturally significant music festivals, including Roskildefestival, Grøn Koncert, Northside and Tinderbox.

Roskildefestival is one of the biggest cultural events in Europe and attracts over 100,000 guests each year (Damsgaard, 2017). As the brand associates itself with these exciting and culturally significant events, the brand becomes part of culture and consumers form a special emotional bond to the Tuborg brand.

Similarly, the slogans ‘Gør Livet Lidt Grønnere’ (make life a little greener; 1982-2017) and ‘Selfølgelig’ (of course; 2017-) have reinforced Tuborg’s connection to Danish culture and inspired a new way to perceive the world and beer drinking. ‘Gør Livet Lidt Grønnere’ took ownership of the colour green and created the connection between Tuborg and Danish treasures ranging from landmarks to summer dresses (Andersen J.

E., 2017). ‘Selfølgelig’ forged an association between Tuborg and a number of cultural artefacts such as famous songs and everyday situations, capturing important moments in Danish people’s daily life which should be enjoyed with a Tuborg. These cemented the idea that there is a Tuborg for every taste and every moment, while reminding Danish consumers about all the experiences and memories that they have had with Tuborg throughout their lives. An extract from Tuborg’s website summarises Tuborg’s relationship with Danish consumers:

Tuborg has been a part of the Danish ‘national soul’ since 1875. There aren’t many festive events, cosy moments, great lunches, trips home at sunrise, greetings across the hedge, first kisses or long talks at the dinner table, that don’t begin or end with a Tuborg (Tuborg, 2020).

With its iconic advertising campaigns throughout history, it is believed that the Tuborg brand has had an influence on Denmark’s national identity and has a special place in the hearts of Danish consumer as society.

As such, the brand is considered a strong candidate to be considered an iconic brand in a Danish context.

1.3. Structure

The complexity of the iconic brand concept and the theory’s limited empirical foundations raises numerous questions which this paper will attempt to explore through a case study of Tuborg in a Danish cultural context.

On the background of the research gap outlined, this paper will present a research question and a number

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of subquestions which will be answered in the following pages, in order to explore what characterises an iconic brand from the consumer perspective in the Danish national culture.

The theoretical foundation behind the phenomenon of cultural branding will be presented, starting with an analysis of the conventional approach to branding and explaining how perceiving of identity as a cultural construct opens the door for the more powerful cultural approach to branding, leading to the creation of iconic brands. Then, the theories that support cultural branding will be explored in order to develop a clear and generalisable summary of the phenomenon.

The methodology section will outline the empirical approach that this paper will take, explaining why an interpretive qualitative study was determined to be the most effective way to address the research question, while defending some of the technicalities of the depth interviews undertaken.

Next, the results of the study will be reported and evaluated in light of the concepts and issues uncovered in the theoretical foundation. These findings will be discussed and critically evaluated in terms of their coherence with the established literature, along with exposing the key findings that contribute to further understanding of the iconic brand concept in a Danish context.

Finally, concluding comments outlining the implications of the findings will be put forth, along with the study’s validity and reliability and potential avenues for future research.

1.4. Research Question

The absence of cultural branding literature in countries outside of the materialistic haven of USA has presented an opportunity to explore the phenomenon in the context of the less materialistic nation of Denmark. Through a case study of Tuborg, the concept of brands as cultural icons in the Danish culture will be investigated with an aim to deepen knowledge of the phenomenon and provide clarity in the iconic brand construct in the less materialistic national culture of Denmark. The research question to be addressed in this paper is:

What characterises an iconic brand in the Danish national culture, which is considerably less materialistic than the American national culture from which iconic brands typically emerge?

1.4.1. Subquestions

Firstly, in order to shed light on the cultural branding phenomenon in a Danish context, it is important to establish the foundational theoretical understanding of what an iconic brand is from a consumer perspective.

As such, the first subquestion is:

1. How can an iconic brand be defined?

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Secondly, in order to build an understanding of the iconic brand concept in a Danish context through investigating the Tuborg brand, there are several questions deemed both interesting and relevant to the phenomenon that must be answered. These are presented in the following subquestions:

1. What culturally-shared emotions and feelings are connected to the consumption of Tuborg beyond the product?

2. In what way is Tuborg identity-defining for Danish consumers?

3. Which significant aspect(s) of Danish culture can Tuborg be considered a representative symbol of?

Answering these subquestions through empirical research will reveal in which aspects Tuborg can be considered iconic when cross-examined with the established American theories, and in which it cannot. This will allow for an exploration and discussion into Tuborg as an iconic brand, shedding light on which factors characterise the iconic brand phenomenon in a Danish context (in contrast to the American context) and presenting a response to the overarching research question.

1.5. Delimitation

This paper will limit itself to Tuborg in the Danish market for two key reasons. Firstly, as the brand’s country of origin, Denmark is the only country in which its brand identity is undiluted; Tuborg’s branding profile and marketing communications are significantly different overseas and as such, would not provide a consistent foundation for this study to be undertaken. Secondly, iconic brands need to be viewed within their cultural context to make sense of their social meaning and to understand their impact on a given society (Testa, Cova,

& Cantone, 2017), and therefore Denmark is the only country in which Tuborg has the presence and cultural meaning among consumers to qualify as an iconic brand.

While Tuborg has a range of different products in its beer range (Classic, Guld, Rå, Nul, Julebryg, Påskebryg, etc.) which can qualify as brands in their own right, this paper will focus on the Tuborg brand as an entire entity. This said, the paper will make reference to the influence and impact of its individual products on its status as an iconic brand when relevant.

While the study will be delimited to the urban and suburban settings of the greater Copenhagen area for logistical reasons, Copenhagen is in many ways the cultural hub of Denmark and therefore is expected to provide a fair reflection of the entirety of Denmark. While Danish culture does differ across the nation, particularly between Jylland and Sjælland, these differences are minute in comparison to the cultural chasm between America and Denmark, and for the purposes of this study is expected to provide sufficient usable data to address the research question.

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Since this study is more interested in a deep evaluation of a relatively small sample, findings will not be generalisable or a comprehensive reflection of the entire society. Instead, it is expected that the perspectives and feelings of some Danish consumers will give adequate insight into the cultural branding phenomenon in a Danish context to justify and pave the way for a future quantitative study. The chosen sample provides the examination of the perspectives of a variety of Danish consumers in terms of generation, gender and origin, which will presumably have varying albeit equally important impressions of Tuborg, all of which are relevant to gaining a better understanding of iconic brands in a Danish context.

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2. Theoretical Foundation

2.1. Conventional Brand Management

2.1.1. Mindshare Branding

Evolving from traditional brand management approaches that centre around communicating the functional benefits of one brand’s products over another, modern brand management theory shifts its focus onto brands’ place in the minds of consumers. Mindshare is a term used to summarise the brand management approach widely exercised in the past four or five decades, built on the premise that brands succeed when they colonise valued ‘cognitive territory’ in the minds of consumers (Holt & Cameron, 2012). According to the theory, a durable brand image is created through the brand coming to own a desired association in the minds of consumers through constantly evoking this association in every marketing communication and keeping it consistent over time (Holt, 2004). This strategy calls to mind brand associations such as Subway with freshness and Volvo with safety.

With increasing importance of differentiation in competitive markets, mindshare based on functional benefits – which are easy to replicate or surpass with technology – quickly became outdated as a meaningful differentiation mechanism. In response, the theory eventually shifted towards emotional benefits, encouraging brands to pursue ‘emotional territory’ in the minds of consumers in order to develop emotionally charged relationships with them (Holt, 2004). Examples of this include the pride of ownership that accompanies the special driving experience of an Alfa-Romeo, along with L’Oreal’s uplifting ‘Because You’re Worth It’ prompting a positive emotional reaction.

Keller’s (1997) statement ‘the power of a brand lies in what resides in the minds and hearts of customers’

(Keller, 1997, p. 69) encapsulates this evolution, building the argument that to build high levels of brand equity, a brand must provoke emotions and build a strong relationship with consumers. With brand meaning previously being thought of as shaped by the company, this prompted a shift in attention towards consumers and it became commonly understood that brand meaning is in fact created dialectically co-produced by brands and consumers; the brand projecting its intended brand identity, which consumers individually and subjectively interpret as the brand image (Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1993). This emotional approach supports the original mindshare ideology that a brand should maintain a consistent brand identity over time in order to burn the brand associations into the minds of consumers, and that brand consistency is critical to maintaining brand equity (Aaker, 1996; Keller, 2013).

Mindshare branding can be an effective approach for utilitarian, low-involvement brands because distilling a brand to a handful of key associations simplifies decision making for the consumer (Holt, 2004). However, for

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brands in identity categories where decision-making is a more sophisticated process, the mindshare approach has some significant limitations.

2.1.1.1. Limited Differentiation

Firstly, in terms of a differentiation mechanism, the shortfall of mindshare is that there are no constraints for emotional benefits; emotions are so generalisable that they can be claimed by any brand in any category (there can also be pride of ownership in a BMW, a Louis Vuitton handbag or a Wilson tennis racquet). As such, from the consumer’s perspective, these generic emotional benefits render brands indistinctive, leaving consumers begging for another form of differentiation (Holt & Cameron, 2012). As Holt (2004) states;

‘consumers don’t care whether the brand owns adjectives. They care about what the brand accomplishes for their identities’ (p. 111).

2.1.1.2. Psychological Approach

Secondly, the psychological approach of mindshare focusses on the consumer-brand interaction and ignores sociocultural influences. However, neither brands nor consumers have total control over brand meanings and the sociocultural environment has been found to be a key dynamic of brand value (Bergvall, 2006). In search of the brand’s purified essence, mindshare presents a distilled model which ignores the messiness of the cultural environment to simplify the theory. Academics argue, however, that it is these untidy parts of social life that present the greatest identity needs (Holt & Cameron, 2010). For example, Jack Daniels gained significance as a cultural icon in America when the Cold War made society realise that the masculine ideal of the time shouldn’t be the white-collar executives that society was trending towards, but instead the gritty and brave frontier gunfighters that could defend their country. Sociocultural shifts like these can unmoor consumers from their current identity needs and the brands they use to satisfy them, urging them to seek new alternatives to address their newfound identity needs.

2.2. Cultural Branding

“A brand based on attributes is situated in the world of practical solutions to functional needs … Many brands explain to their consumers how to solve a certain problem. Cultural brands explain to people what life is all about and who it’s worth being in life”

(Pogorzelski, 2018, p. 205).

2.2.1. Identity as a Cultural Construction

Human beings have always sought meaning to construct their identity and provide them with a sense of belonging in society (Jones, 2017). As carriers of meaning, brands have become prime commercial vehicles in helping consumers satisfy their personal and social identity needs, as individuals purchase them to buy

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into this meaning (McCracken, 2005). The modern consumer is found to be on an endless journey to create their own individuated identity through consumption; ‘We learn, define, and remind ourselves of who we are by our possessions’ (Belk, 1988, p. 160).

In conventional branding theory, identity formation has been perceived as an intensely personal journey and varies from individual to individual based on demographics, psychographics and behaviours. However, cultural branding argues that on the gigantic scale of an entire population, the aggregate of society’s ideas follow cultural currents meaning that the entire population shares many of the same identity needs to address the collective anxieties and desires brought upon them in society (Holt, 2004). As such, one of the key premises of cultural branding is that identity is not an exclusively individual construction, instead developed (and constantly redeveloping) under the influence of surrounding culture (Pogorzelski, 2018).

Culture can be defined as:

“Shared elements that provide the standards for perceiving, believing, evaluating, communicating, and acting among those who share a language, a historical period, and a geographic location” (Torelli & Stoner, 2015, p. 85).

This can be interpreted as a collective phenomenon of the shared meanings and beliefs that provide the ‘lens’

through which a community collectively interprets the world and their place in it (McCracken, 1986). The cohesion of a nation heavily relies on its people identifying with the overarching ideals implanted in culture, giving culture a significant influence on identity needs of individuals (Holt & Cameron, 2010). These identity needs are largely based on the culturally shared system of beliefs in which they are planted, personalised to fit the consumer’s specific circumstances (Thompson, Rindfleisch, & Arsel, 2006). Although it can be difficult to conceptualise to what extent culture dictates identity needs, this paper presents a multitude of examples where culture has influenced consumer preferences, and there certainly is a fair degree of evidence and logic to suggest that culture has a considerable impact on identity needs.

This notion that a given consumer is never expressing a strictly subjective viewpoint since their identity needs always reflect broader cultural viewpoints has to some extent revolutionised branding theory (Thompson, Pollio, & Locander, 1994). In contrast to conventional branding where segments are targeted based on demographics, psychographics, behaviour etc., cultural branding focuses on the cultural environment that the consumers exist in, giving a brand the ability to address the needs of entire populations due to culture’s all-encompassing nature (Jones, 2017).

Through providing a frame of reference for what constitutes a meaningful life both in terms of self-definition and place in society, a nation’s culture creates ideological ‘models’ for living (Pogorzelski, 2018). However,

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individuals recognise that they don’t fulfil a nation’s ideology by default simply because they are citizens, and an individual’s interpretation of his own life is contingent on the level of identification with this ideology (Holt, 2005). This functions as the motive behind consumers’ perpetual search for cultural meaning to bridge the gap between their realised identity and the cultural ideal.

2.2.2. Goods as Carriers of Cultural Meaning

Grant McCracken was one of the frontrunners in theorising the production and circulation of cultural meaning through consumption goods. He states that ‘Consumer goods have a significance that goes beyond their utilitarian character and commercial value. This significance rests largely in their ability to carry and communicate cultural meaning’ (McCracken, 1986, p. 71). The major breakthrough was the idea that cultural meaning is not only applied to cultural objects (films, music, books, celebrities etc.), but can also be applied to all consumer goods (McCracken, 1986).

“To know that goods carry these cultural principles is to begin to understand how it is that goods serve as a kind of tableau in which the meaning of this cultural universe is written”

(McCracken, 1988, p. 133).

According to the theory, cultural meaning is transferred from the culturally constituted world into consumer goods and subsequently integrated into the lives of consumers through their consumption of these goods (see appendix 2) (McCracken, 1986). In this way, goods become a visible part of culture. For example, the Jeep military vehicle became an icon of adventure and toughness during WWII through its exposure to the same conditions as the soldiers. The classic Jeep car design consequently came to represent this adventure and toughness and consumers today are able to bring these traits into their lives through driving a Jeep.

Critically, McCracken (1988) notes that a brand’s cultural signiﬁcance depends on the cultural group used as a reference. As such, while the Jeep is a recognised cultural icon in America, many non-American consumers do not have the same experience with the object and are therefore unlikely to place the same level of cultural significance on it. He also highlights that while cultural meaning is always in transition (McCracken, 1986), it becomes concretised in the form of consumer goods (McCracken, 1988). Rugged images of WWII soldiers are not part of daily life in the 21^st century, however its cultural significance is eternally embedded in the Jeep vehicle. It is in this sense that consumer goods are a materialisation of culture, establishing an opportunity for a community to absorb and express cultural meaning in a medium other than language (McCracken, 1988).

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Cultural branding builds upon the assumption that consumers are increasingly valuing brands for what they symbolise rather than their functional purpose, and that consumers use brands to understand and develop their identity. As such cultural branding dictates that brands must look beyond the classic consumer-brand interaction that has dominated recent brand management theory and towards the role of culture in the brand’s meaning formation. With origins in McCracken’s (1986; 1988) philosophy that products are capable of carrying cultural meaning, cultural branding theorises that brands themselves become cultural constitutions and project cultural meaning onto its products which then gets transferred to individual consumers through consumption. Building upon the previous example, as the Jeep brand becomes a cultural constitution in itself, consumers experience and project Jeep’s ruggedness and adventure through not only driving a Jeep vehicle (the product), but also through every object bearing Jeep’s brand markers; a Jeep cap or deodorant, for instance.

Cultural branding is built upon this notion that consumers are attracted to brands that embody the ideals they admire and help them express who they want to be¹. As such, the ultimate goal of cultural branding is to establish a brand as not only a cultural constitution, but a cultural icon, which is where the term iconic brand is born². Developing as a result of sociocultural movements, a cultural icon is an exemplary symbol that people use as shorthand to represent desired ideas within a culture (Truman, 2017). They have a powerful presence in society and consumers look to them as prominent signposts for culturally significant beliefs, values and lifestyles. As a cultural icon is a symbolic representation of a prevailing ideology in society, an iconic brand allows the consumer to experience a material embodiment of this ideology in their daily lives (Holt, 2004). Herein lies the foundational premise of cultural branding; that brands have the potential to provide extraordinary identity value through coming to represent ideas important to an entire cultural group.

Referring to this premise that entire populations share many of the same identity goals, cultural branding involves targeting society as a whole rather than differentiating between segments (Holt, 2003). In the 1950s, the Volkswagen Beetle was haunted by associations with Nazi Germany and a reputation as one of the ugliest

1It must be noted that cultural branding applies particularly to identity brands in which people value products as a means of self- expression, such as clothing, home décor, beauty, leisure, entertainment, automotive, food and beverage (Holt, 2004).

2 There is some discrepancy in the term iconic brand amongst branding literature. Some sources use the term to label ‘powerful brands with dominant positions in their markets with very high levels of brand awareness’ (Leibig, 2005), or ‘timeless brands with long-standing traditions’ (Hatch & Rubin, 2006); however these conceptualisations are indistinctive because they are synonymous with brands who simply have a history of high levels of brand equity (Torelli & Stoner, 2015). This paper refers to iconic brands with the cultural dimension as per Holt’s (2004) definition: a true iconic brand carries with it a cultural component, making it resonate with consumers on a deeper emotional level. Eisengerich et al.’s (2009) perception of iconic brands as ‘brands that are easily recognisable and embedded within our culture and in our consciousness’ uses culture merely as a gauge of iconic status and does not recognise its role as part of the strategic process, and for that reason will not be explored further in this paper.

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and least reliable cars on the road. At a time when the American automobile market was dominated by overhyped and manipulative advertising, Volkswagen’s simple unpretentious advertising struck a sociocultural nerve among American consumers through confronting the lifestyles and tastes that mass culture was imposing upon them. Through shifting its focus onto alleviating a sociocultural imbalance (rather than a specific demographic or psychographic segment), the Volkswagen Beetle became a symbolic representation of the ‘bohemian’ American consumer who wasn’t a fool for media and manipulative advertising messages, but instead an intelligent and creative person capable of independently defining what is stylish. People were drawn to the Volkswagen Beetle because it was more than a car, it became a vessel of self-expression and differentiation and one of the most powerful iconic brands in America in the 1970s (Broertjes, 2019).

The key argument behind cultural branding literature is that an iconic brand cannot be built with the conventional branding blueprint since functional and emotional associations aren’t as influential on identity as culturally symbolic meaning. The fuel to create iconic brands is therefore not in the consumer’s mind, but rather in the world of culture and society (Holt, 2003). In fact, the integration of the sociocultural context in branding addresses many of the aforementioned shortcomings of conventional brand management theories.

Reference to culture on a macro-level as a provider of meaning and brand symbolism is a relatively recent angle of study in the branding field and has sparked studies on the topic which split off two main theoretical directions; iconic brands and cult brands. While this paper will focus on deepening knowledge on the iconic brand concept (Holt, 2004; Beverland, 2009; Torelli & Stoner, 2015), the distinction with the parallel school of theory of cult brands (Ragas & Bueno, 2002; Atkin, 2004; Wittwer, 2014) will also briefly be discussed.

McCracken’s (1986) introduction of the external element of culture into the product-consumer exchange paved the way for a number of academics to explore the interplay between culture and brands in meaning creation. Holt’s (2004) cultural branding model stands as the benchmark conceptualisation of iconic brands and his model has become the dominant theory in terms of cultural branding. While Holt’s (2004) framework stands as the central pillar of cultural branding, other academics have challenged and extended his model in an attempt to advance the theory. Michael Beverland (2009) downplays the role of culture and takes a more brand-oriented approach, arguing that iconic brands are built through a combination of brand authenticity and cultural connection. Torelli & Stoner (2015) shift focus back onto the key role of culture, conceptualising iconic status as an accumulation of culturally significant brand meanings. Of this literature, there is a general agreement surrounding which brands are viewed as iconic and the benefits that such brands enjoy, however there are noteworthy dissimilarities in terms of specific criteria that an iconic brand must fulfil, and how

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exactly one is created from a strategic brand management perspective. This section will explore the development of iconic brands as a cultural branding conceptualisation.

2.2.3.1. Cult Brand

In terms of the implementation of the cultural dimension into the brand-consumer interaction of meaning creation, most literature is rather foggy in terms of differentiating between iconic brands and cult brands.

Defining a cult as ‘a group that embraces an ideology that departs significantly from the prevailing beliefs of the surrounding culture’, Douglas Atkin (2004) recognised that the same dynamics are at play behind the attraction to brands and cults. Atkin (2004) defines a cult brand as:

A brand for which a group of customers exhibit a great devotion or dedication. Its ideology is distinctive and it has a well-defined and committed community. It enjoys exclusive devotion, and its members often become voluntary advocates (Atkin, 2004, p. xiii).

In practice, the line between cult brand and iconic brand is rather blurry – both have a place in the cultural fabric of a nation and invite extremely high loyalty – but the subtle differences must be distinguished.

The first key difference is that while iconic brands are typically associated with representing universal ideas which appeal to culture on a wider national level, cult brands are synonymous with subcultures and niche product categories. Most often cult brands emerge as a small subculture promoting a lifestyle that recognisably stands out from broader culture that people want to be a part of (Wittwer, 2014). Vans, for example, is a cult brand which represents the urban skater subculture, which is very contrarian of society’s views of corporate life and conformity. This focus on a specific subculture allows cult brands to convey special, unique symbolism which helps consumers express themselves through partaking in a ‘group that’s different’, leading to a highly devoted following (Wittwer, 2014). In contrast, Nike represents the broader values of athleticism and achievement and is therefore an iconic brand rather than a cult brand.

Secondly, compared to iconic brands, cult brands to a much greater degree rely on social relations and building communities (or cults) around them (Kravets & Örge, 2010), giving consumers a place to interact with each other (Constatin & Stoenescu, 2014). Vans builds skate parks and frequently hosts skating events where its followers can get together and interact, helping consumers to sustain and reinforce a sense of belonging and unity through ‘communal consumption’ of the brand (Wittwer, 2014).

To summarise, the key difference is that an iconic brand has the traits associated with a cultural icon, whereas a cult brand builds (and nurtures) a cult following through satisfying niche social identity needs that differ from the culture’s dominant ideology (Atkin, 2004). The two are not mutually exclusive, however. An example is Harley-Davidson where the product itself appeals to the ‘outlaw’ biker subculture and has created a strong

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community around the brand, supporting Atkin’s (2004) notion that ‘in the world of cult brands, people buy people, not things or ideas alone’ (Atkin, 2004, p. 203). However, the enduring American theme of wind-in- hair freedom that the brand stands for is universal and has established the brand as iconic.

2.2.4. How Brands become Icons, Holt (2004)

Holt’s (2004) cultural branding model is built from historically oriented case studies of a selection of American brands which were classified as iconic in his view, aimed at describing how iconic brands are developed and eventually maintained. Despite their differences in terms of industry, history, competitive situations and customer bases, Holt (2004) found that the brands displayed definitive commonalities that, in his opinion, lead to their iconic status. He concluded that they all followed a process completely dissimilar to the principles observed in conventional models of branding which he summarised to create the cultural branding model.

A very comprehensive model hinging on seven axioms, Holt’s (2004) philosophy of cultural branding is centred around the premise that a brand’s value derives from addressing the key cultural tensions of the nation through authoring identity myths. There are some elements of Holt’s model which are less relevant to the purposes of this paper and therefore will not be discussed in depth. This is in particular related to iconic brands relying on breakthrough performances rather than consistent communications, and iconic brands enjoying a cultural halo effect, since these are qualities which are typically also related to strong brands with high brand equity and are therefore not deemed decisive for the iconic brand theorisation. As such, the core aspects of his model involving cultural contradictions and the identity myth construct will be the focus of this section.

2.2.4.1. Cultural Contradictions

Conventional branding models insist that brands maintain their competitive positions through maintaining a consistent brand essence in spite of sociocultural shifts (Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1993; Kapferer, 2008). Holt (2004) challenges this status quo, arguing that this approach overlooks what makes identity brands valuable to their consumers; which is satisfying their identity and belongingness needs throughout changes in their life. These changes often come due to macro-cultural shifts in the national ideology (resulting from social tensions, politics, technology, etc.) which result in what he calls ‘cultural contradictions’ (Holt, 2004). During these shifts, individuals within a society experience collective desires and anxieties and are forced to adjust their self-image and perceived place in society. Building upon McCracken’s (1988) notion that ‘goods are a versatile instrument of meaning manipulation and one of the ways this society both initiates and survives the social change to which it is by necessity and design committed’ (p. 130), Holt (2004) believes that individuals crave symbolic resolutions and seek out brands with cultural meaning at these junctures. In the 1950s, when

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smoking cigarettes was a normal part of life for many people, Marlboro introduced filtered cigarettes in response to growing health concerns. Demand for these filtered cigarettes faltered, however, since they were seen as the weaker and less flavourful alternative. In response to the significant sociocultural tension of filtered cigarettes emasculating men at the time, Marlboro introduced the Marlboro Man: a portrait of rugged masculinity in the form of a cowboy. This symbol stimulated the consumers’ imagination and connected the Marlboro brand to the masculinity, independence and defiance of a cowboy through the power of association. Marlboro smoothed over this cultural tension through redefining what it was to be masculine, and therefore established itself as an iconic brand heading into the 1960s (Bendix, 2020). Holt’s (2004) cultural branding model is built upon this concept that iconic brands are symbolic representations of meanings that consumers find valuable in constructing their identity in response to the changes that society undergoes.

While tensions arising from significant sociocultural shifts present an outstanding opportunity for addressing identity needs at the level necessary for a brand to become iconic, Holt (2004) mentions that culture only experiences these shifts roughly every decade. While this can possibly be put down to the theory’s dated nature, in modern society technological and sociocultural advances have accelerated and ‘eras’ are becoming increasingly shorter. Either way, it is implausible that iconic brands only can be created during these openings, since iconic brands have been formed frequently throughout recent history, and not in ‘batches’ at the beginning of every new ‘era’³ as Holt’s (2004) theory would suggest. As such, it is likely that more gentle trends occurring on a more frequent basis also can create anxieties demanding symbolic resolutions which can lead to the creation of iconic brands. In fact, the argument could be made that a brand can become iconic through simply addressing an underlying cultural contradiction that consumers aren’t conscious of. For instance, the argument can be made that Lego became an iconic brand not because it alleviated a recognised sociocultural tension of children not being intelligent enough, but instead because it satisfied the unrecognised desire of unleashing a child’s creativity.

2.2.4.2. Identity Myths

In contrast to conventional branding theory where meaning arises from brand associations, a key aspect of Holt’s (2004) theory is that iconic brands’ meaning stems from authoring identity myths. Holt (2004) defines an identity myth as:

“A simple story that resolves cultural contradictions.” (Holt, 2004, p. 11)

3 Holt (2004) refers to the periods between these shifts roughly being classified into ‘eras’.

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Cultural contradictions create damaging ‘tears’ in the cultural fabric of the nation which are experienced by people in their everyday lives as tensions or anxieties (Holt, 2004, p. 8). He argues that the value of identity myths lies in stitching back together these tears, smoothing over collective tensions in society and helping consumers cement their desired identity in place when it is under stress (Holt, 2002). For example, Apple’s myth releases the creative individuality in people in a world where technology has made individuals increasingly pedestrian.

Holt (2004) presents the argument that unlike conventional brands, iconic brands don’t behave as if they have an established brand essence that must be maintained and as such, they repeatedly reinvent themselves and their myth to align with sociocultural changes⁴. Holt (2004) notes that the routine destabilisations that culture experiences in the form of cultural contradictions shatter the value of existing myths and spur the creation of new ones. Mountain Dew became iconic through adjusting its myth several times in response to the changing American cultural eras for over half a decade; first with the Hillbilly myth to in response to the scientific bureaucracy of the 50s-60s (the same myth market that Marlboro capitalised upon), then the Redneck myth to address the Wall Street frontier in the 70s-80s (the origins of Jack Daniels’

myth), and finally the Slacker myth during the free-agent frontier of the 90s-00s (Holt, 2004).

Appreciating the premise that a consumer’s relationship with a brand grows over time, there is certainly logic to support the idea that a brand should adjust their myth to address sociocultural trends. However, while not explicitly stated by Holt (2004), there is believed to be limit to how far the brand can deviate from its original DNA to address these shifts – regardless of substantial ideological shifts in society. Despite a recent trend towards gender equality and feminism, a male-dominated brand such as Budweiser would alienate its current consumers if it abandoned its brand essence and shifted its myth towards addressing growing feminism. Similarly, it is hard to imagine a sociocultural shift that would see Barbie successfully coming to represent masculine ideals. While Holt (2004) states that iconic brands remain iconic only if they abandon their old myth and invent a revised version that taps into a new myth market, there is evidence to suggest that he underestimates the value that consumers place on memory and nostalgia. Powerful myths such as those owned by Jeep, Coca-Cola and Harley-Davidson are distinct and memorable enough that they don’t get outdated – the potency of their cultural expressions may fade over time, but they certainly remain iconic brands.

4The brands that Holt studied succeeded by moving away from their original branding DNA at the time to address shifting currents in American society (Holt, 2005).

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A key aspect of myth markets in Holt’s theory is that iconic brands don’t seek to mirror the thoughts and emotions of their customers in their daily lives, instead constructing their myths with a voice coming from populist worlds (Holt, 2003). Corona’s myth is set on a faraway beach in Mexico, relieving anxieties surrounding the monotony and stress of working life. Through providing an imaginative, rather than literal, expression of the audience’s aspired identity, this myth allows the consumer to grasp identity-defining meaning in the form of a dimension beyond the utilitarian and mundaneness of their daily life. The action- adventure icon of Indiana Jones is exciting because it is distant from daily life, whereas the story of a very successful accountant would be far less interesting – iconic brands work the same way. While Holt (2004) insists that populist world origins are a prerequisite for the myth of an iconic brand, there is both logic and research to suggest that myths can also originate in mainstream society. Heller (2009) found that myths originating in populist worlds was not a necessity for the creation of corporate iconic brands and it is believed that iconic brands’ myths can also originate in everyday life or in idealised views of everyday life. Coca-Cola’s myth, for example is simply an idealised version of the world that consumers are living in. Holt’s (2004) model is summarised in Figure 1.

Figure 1 (Adapted from Holt (2004; p. 11)

2.2.4.3. The Brand as the Carrier of the Myth

Through constructing and supplying consumers with identity myths that resonate with consumers’ collective identity projects of the time, the brand becomes a physical embodiment of the myth (Holt, 2004). Corona has come to symbolise the myth of the relaxation of a faraway Mexican beach, and this myth is continually experienced by consumers through their contact with the brand. When consumers sip a Corona, they are drinking more than a beverage – they are absorbing the identity myths that have become imbued in the drink, using its symbolism to relieve identity burdens. The brand becomes a conduit through which the

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customers get to experience the stories the brand performs, and customers purchase the product to experience Corona’s myth as an escape from daily life, not only for the pleasure of drinking the beer itself.

When a brand comes to embody an identity myth that consumers find useful in reinforcing their identities, this identity value spreads to other aspects of the brand (Holt, 2004). Consumers experience Corona’s relaxing Mexican beach myth not only through drinking the beer, but also through anything carrying the brand’s markers; a t-shirt, coaster, or even an empty Corona bottle.

2.2.5. Iconic Brands Built on Authenticity, Beverland (2009)

Through a case-based analysis of a variety of enduring brands which Beverland (2009) considers iconic, he finds that there is a very close relationship between authenticity and iconic brand status and builds the argument that the route to iconic status is through building brand authenticity. Although Beverland (2009) appreciates that the brand meaning is derived from an ongoing interaction between the firm, its stakeholders and society, he finds that authenticity, in its core, is a product of the consumers’ relationship with the brand.

With reference to brand image theory, a brand’s authenticity is found to be perceptual; that is, subjectively interpreted by the individual consumer. The individual consumer, however, is enacting an identity based not only on their personal goals, but also reflective of their sociocultural environment, and it is in this sense that culture has an indirect effect on identity projects. While Holt (2004) uses culture as a key contributor in the exchange between the brand and the consumer and highlights sociocultural shifts as necessary for the creation of an iconic brand, Beverland (2009) merely observes the sociocultural environment as the ‘setting’

in which the brand-consumer interaction occurs (See Figure 2). This can be interpreted as brand authenticity (and by extension, iconicity) being attainable both when culture shifts and also when it is stable.

In Beverland’s (2009) theory, a brand’s authenticity hinges largely on its salient features, comprising its operational processes, communications as well as place in culture.

Since a brand’s operational processes are not particularly relevant to cultural branding theory and therefore not within the scope of this paper, it will not be discussed further.

In terms of communications, similar to Holt’s (2004) approach, Beverland’s (2009) path to iconic brand status is through storytelling. Storytelling is a part of Beverland’s (2009) model because it is a mode of communication that establishes a stronger emotional bond to consumers and also disguises its commercial motives, contributing to the aura of authenticity surrounding a brand. Beverland’s (2009) storytelling

Figure 2 (Adapted from Beverland (2009; p. 6))

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approach differs to Holt’s (2004) myths in some key areas. Principally, while Holt’s (2004) myths are designed to address cultural contradictions, Beverland’s (2009) storytelling is instead focussed on directly addressing the identity goals of consumers. While these identity goals are understood to be reflective of wider sociocultural trends, Beverland (2009) does not explicitly make reference to targeting sociocultural shifts.

Instead, Beverland (2009) vaguely states that stories should be orchestrated with ‘the brand’s surrounds and circumstances taken into consideration’, taking advantage of ‘lucky events’, and drawing on subcultures.

Supporting Holt’s (2004) sentiment against the conventional brand management mantra of message consistency, Beverland (2009) notes that the brand becomes a repository for its story through repetition, and that adjusting the brand’s story to reflect the changing times ensures long-term success.

Beverland (2009) argues that close connection between a brand and culture can promote consumers’

perception of brand authenticity and as such, connecting with culture is regarded as an important precondition for brand authenticity (Beverland, Lindgreen, & Vink, 2008). This link is created through drawing on cultural resources to tell stories that forge either physical or symbolic connections to a culture or subculture. Starbucks became authentic through embodying the spirit of the 1990s revolving around the rise of the internet, networking and casualisation, and therefore becoming symbolic of modern coffee culture.

Similarly, Red Bull can be considered iconic because it radiates authenticity through its commitment to the high-adrenaline lifestyle.

In contrast to Holt’s (2004) model where a brand must come to be the prevailing symbolic representation of an important aspect of a culture to become iconic, a brand must simply show connection to a culture to satisfy the cultural component of Beverland’s (2009) model. To illustrate this distinction; BMW, Audi, Mercedes-Benz and Porsche all share the story of the triumph of German engineering which appeals to the successful executives subculture, which is sufficient to fulfil the cultural criteria of Beverland’s (2009) model and establish the brands as authentic (and therefore iconic). In contrast, when Holt’s (2004) criteria is applied, only Mercedes-Benz, due to its prominent symbolic representation of corporate achievement, can be considered iconic.

Overall, Beverland (2009) presents a somewhat simplified adaptation of Holt’s (2004) cultural branding theory with significantly lesser requirements relating to the cultural influence and the storytelling aspects.

The adaptation of brand authenticity as an intermediary has shifted focus onto the qualifications of the brand itself, which has drawn emphasis away from the power of the sociocultural environment.

Going against the grain of other cultural branding literature which insist that iconic brand status is limited to brands in identity categories (Holt, 2004; Torelli & Stoner, 2015), Beverland (2009) makes the bold claim that since the search for authenticity is an enduring theme in individual life goals, every brand can be authentic

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and therefore has the potential to become iconic. While it is a valid point, in theory, that authenticity is applicable across a range of brand contexts, identity brands have an emotional involvement that is unmatched in other brand categories, and the ability to build this emotional involvement is believed to be a key factor in the creation of iconic brands. In practice, it is hard to imagine brand categories such as an insurance, pharmaceutical or energy which have little emotional investment becoming iconic brands and as such, iconic brand status is believed to be limited to identity brands.

2.2.6. Building Blocks of Cultural Equity, Torelli & Stoner (2015)

Torelli & Stoner’s (2015) cultural branding theory is built on a conceptualisation of recent research on social psychology, consumer culture and global branding. It centres around the idea that beyond providing functional benefits, a brand must connect with both the self-expressive needs and cultural identity needs of consumers to become iconic (see Figure 3) (Torelli, 2013). For instance, both Nike and New Balance are American sportswear brands that fulfil the self-expressive need of commitment to an athletic lifestyle.

However, by capitalising on Americans’

obsession with celebrities, competition and achievement, Nike also fulfils cultural identity needs and has therefore risen to the level of an iconic brand, while New Balance remains an identity brand.

Identity brands per definition are satisfiers of self-expressive needs, and as such, it is through the fulfilment of cultural identity needs where an identity brand takes the leap to iconic status. Torelli & Stoner (2015) propose that a brand fulfils cultural identity needs through an accumulation of cultural equity. Cultural equity is defined as the ‘brand’s cultural meanings capable of eliciting a favourable and distinct consumer response’

(Torelli, 2013, p. 44). Following the cultural branding view that consumers draw cultural meanings from culturally symbolic brands to help build their identities in response to their cultural surroundings, Torelli &

Stoner (2015) conceptualise the ‘Building Blocks of Cultural Equity (see Figure 4). In this model, brands move up the pyramid and have the potential to be iconic when they reach the top, fulfilling the preceding criteria.

At the base level, Torelli and Stoner (2015) argue that every brand is organically endowed with some form of cultural equity based on the associations behind its country of origin or the fact that it’s global. When using nationality as the defining cultural criterion, iconic brands often have strong country-of-origin connections, however this is not a sufficient condition to develop iconic brand status (Torelli & Rodas, 2017).

Figure 3 (Adapted from Torelli (2013; p. 96))

A Consumer Perspective of Iconic Brands in a Danish Context