Petra VladykovaAn energy efficient building for the Arctic climate - Is a passive house sensible solution for Greenland?Report R-243 2011Petra VladykovaAn energy efficient building for the Arctic climate - Is a passive house sensible solution for Greenland?Report R-243 2011
DTU Civil Engineering Report R-243 (UK) April 2011
Petra Vladykova
PhD Thesis
Department of Civil Engineering 2011
An energy efficient building for the Arctic climate
Is a passive house sensible solution for Greenland?
Petra VladykovaAn energy efficient building for the Arctic climate - Is a passive house sensible solution for Greenland?Report R-243 2011
During the past few decades, there has been quite some development of energy efficient buildings with low energy heating consumption; one of these buildings is a passive house which has been successfully implemented in locations 40° to 60° Northern latitudes. Nowadays, there is a focus on implementation of a passive house in more demanding climate of the Arctic regions. The analyses presented in this thesis offer a theoretical possibility of building a fundamental passive house in the Arctic and an improvement of the technical solutions in a full sense of definition. Furthermore, a discussion of the new definition is presented based on the optimization of building construction products and adaptation of a passive house in the Arctic.
The adaptation of a passive house in the Arctic is based on the best combination of building design aspects, climate characteristics, the material availability and energy resources combined with ecological impacts.
DTU Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering Technical University of Denmark
Brovej, Building 118 2800 Kgs. Lyngby Telephone 45 25 17 00 www.byg.dtu.dk
ISBN: 9788778773234 ISSN: 1601-2917
i
Preface
This thesis is submitted for the Ph.D. degree to the Department of Civil Engineering at the Technical University of Denmark.
The study described in the thesis has been carried out from August 2007 to April 2011. It should be noted that a leave of absence for a total of 8.5 months has occurred during the process of working on the thesis. The funding for this Ph.D. is from the Technical University of Denmark.
The work has been conducted at BYG - Section for Building Physics and Services, Department of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Denmark. The supervisors were Head of Section Professor Carsten Rode (BYG DTU), Associate Professor Toke Rammer Nielsen (BYG DTU) and M.Sc. Søren Pedersen (Passivhus.dk, Passivhus.fi).
Petra Vladykova
Kongens Lyngby, April 15, 2011.
i
Preface
This thesis is submitted for
the Ph .D. deg ree to the De partm ent of Civil E ngineering at
the Techn ical University
of De nmark.
The study described in the thesis has be
en carr ied out fr om Au gust 200 7 to April 2011.
It should be
noted that a leave of absen ce for a tot al of 8.5 month s has occurred
during the process of
working
on the thesi s. The fund
ing f or this Ph.D. i s from the Te
chnica l Unive rsity of Denm ark.
The wor k has bee n conduc ted at
BYG - Section for B uilding Ph ysic s and Service s, De partment of
Civi l En gin eering, Technic
al University of De
nmark. The s upervisors were
Head of Sect ion
Professor Ca rsten Rode (BYG DTU), Associa
te Professor Toke Ra
mmer Niel sen (BYG DTU) and
M.Sc. Søren Pedersen (Pa
ssivhus.dk, Passivhus.f
i).
Petra Vla dykova
Konge ns Lyngby,
Ap ril 15, 2011.
ii
ii
iii
Acknowledgments
Many people have helped me during the years of study and I would like to thank them all for their help and contributions. I would like to give a special thanks and appreciation to the following:
- My supervisor, Carsten Rode, for endless support, valuable inputs and encouragements
which he offered me whenever my spirits were down.
- My other two supervisors Søren Pedersen and Toke Rammer Nielsen, for inspiring
discussions and very valuable inputs.
- Peter Holzer, for his help during external stay at the Danube University Krems, Austria.
- All colleagues at BYG, for their support.
- All colleagues at ARTEK, for taking me along and introducing me to Greenland.
- My colleague Janne Dragsted, for walks and talks.
- DTU for granting me the Ph.D. scholarship.
- A special thanks to my family, Michal and all my friends for their support.
iii
Acknowledgmen ts
Many peo ple have hel ped me during the years of
stu dy and I wo uld like to thank them al
l for their
help and cont ributions.
I wo uld like to gi ve a special th
anks and appreciatio n to t
he following:
- My s upe rvi sor , C ars ten R ode , f or end less su ppo rt, val uabl e in put s a nd enc our age men ts
which he offe red me whe
never my spiri ts were down.
- My other tw o superviso rs
Søren Pedersen and Toke
Ramm er Ni else n, for in spiring
discussions a nd very valu
abl e inputs.
- Peter Holzer, for hi s help during external stay at
the D anube University Krem s, Austr
ia.
- All col league s at BYG, for thei
r suppo rt.
- All colleagues at ART
EK, for taking me along and introduci
ng me to Green land.
- My coll eague Janne Dragsted, for wa
lks and tal ks.
- DTU for granting me
the Ph.D. schol arship.
- A special thanks t
o my family, Michal an d all m y frie nds for the ir support.
iv
iv
v
List of appended papers
This thesis is based on analyses which are described partly in the body of the thesis and in the following articles which are the basis of this dissertation. The enclosed publications are papers presented at international conferences and papers accepted in, or submitted to, scientific journals.
Appended papers
Paper I Passive houses for the Arctic Climates
Petra Vladykova, Carsten Rode, Toke Rammer Nielsen, Søren Pedersen
Published in the 1st Norden Passivhus Conference, Trondheim, Norway, 2009
Paper II The potential and need for energy savings in standard family detached and
semi-detached wooden houses in arctic Greenland Søren Peter Bjarløv, Petra Vladykova
Published in the Journal of Building and Environment, 2010
Paper III Low-energy house in Arctic climate - 5 years of experience
Petra Vladykova, Carsten Rode, Jesper Kragh, Martin Kotol Accepted in the Journal of Cold Regions Engineering, 2011
Paper IV Passive houses in the Arctic. Measures and alternatives
Petra Vladykova, Carsten Rode, Toke Rammer Nielsen, Søren Pedersen
Published in the 13th International Conference on Passive House, Frankfurt am
Main, Germany, 2009
Paper V The energy potential from the building design’s differences between Europe and
Arctic
Petra Vladykova, Carsten Rode
Published in the 9th Nordic Symposium on Building Physics, Tampere, Finland, 2011
Paper VI The study of an appropriate and reasonable building solution for Arctic climates
based on a passive house concept Petra Vladykova, Carsten Rode
Submitted to the Journal of Cold Regions Engineering, 2011 v
List of appended papers
This thesis is based on analyses which
are describ ed partly
in th e bod y of the thesis a
nd in
the follo wing articl es wh ich are the basi s of this di ssertat ion.
The encl osed publicat
ions are pap ers
presented at in ternatio nal c onferences and papers accepted in, or submitted t
o, scientific jo urnal
s.
Appen ded p apers
Paper I Passive hous
es for the Arcti
c Climates en Rode, Toke Ra Carst dykova, Petra Vla mmer
Niel
sen, Søren Pedersen onference, Trondhe ssivhus C rden Pa No st he 1 in t Published
im, No rway, 200 9
Paper I I The potential
and need for energy savings in
stand ard famil
y detached and 2010 reenland Environment, arctic G ng and a Vladykova of Buildi houses in he Journal Bjarløv, Petr in t semi-detached wooden Søren Peter Published
Paper I II Low -ene rgy house in Arctic cli mate - 5 ye ars of
experience agh, Martin en Rode, Jesper Kr Carst dykova, Petra Vla
Kotol , 201 ring Enginee gions Cold Re Journal of the Accepted in
1
Paper I V Passive hous es in the Arctic.
Measures and alternativ
es sen, Søren Pedersen Niel mmer en Rode, Toke Ra Carst dykova, Petra Vla
, Frankfurt Conference on Passive House ernational Int th he 13 in t Published
am 2009 any, Main, Germ
Paper V The energy potential
from the buil din g design
’s differ ences between
Europe and Tampere, Finland n Building Physics, en Rode rdic Symposium o No th Carst the 9 in dykova, Arctic Petra Vla Published , 20
11
Paper VI The st
udy of an app ropriate and reasonab
le bui lding solu
tion for Arctic climates , 201 ring Enginee gions pt Cold Re conce en Rode Carst Journal of passive house o the dykova, based on a Petra Vla Submitted t 1
vi
vi
vii
Abstract
The Arctic is climatically very different from a temperate climate. In the Arctic regions, the ambient temperature reaches extreme values and it has a direct large impact on the heat loss through the building envelope and it creates problems with the foundation due to the permafrost. The solar pattern is completely different due to the limited availability in winter, yet, in summer, the sun is above horizon for 24 hours. Furthermore, the sunrays reach the vertical opaque elements at shallow angles. The great winds and storms have large effects on the infiltration of buildings and they heavily influence the infiltration heat loss through the building envelope. The wind patterns have large influences on the local microclimate around the building and create the snowdrift and problems with thawing, icing and possible condensation in the building envelope. The humidity in the interior is driven out through the building envelope in the winter due to the pressure difference, strong winds and low water ratio in the outdoor air. The Arctic is also defined by different conditions such as building techniques and availability of the materials and energy supply.
The passive house uses the basic idea of a super energy efficient house in which the normal hydronic heating system can be omitted. The savings in investment for a traditional hydronic heating system are spent on energy conserving components such as increased insulation in a super airtight building shell, super efficient windows to produce the net positive solar gain, and a ventilation system with very efficient heat recovery. To design a passive house in the way it is defined by Wolfgang Feist, the founder of the Passivhaus Institute, its annual heat demand should
not exceed 15 kWh/(m2∙a) and its total primary energy demand should not exceed 120 kWh/(m2∙a)
in which the building envelope allows limited air change of 0.6 h-1 at 50 Pa pressurization. The living
area of the building is well defined according to the standard conditions as a net area and the heat
of 10 W/m2 can just be supplied by post-heating of fresh air after the heat recovery unit which
ensures a satisfactory indoor air quality. A passive house also takes advantage of free gains such as solar heat, the heat from its occupants and their activities, and the domestic appliances, and other sources.
The hypothesis in this dissertation is testing the possibility of a new usage of an extreme energy efficient building in the Arctic. The purpose of this Ph.D. study is to determine the optimal use of an energy efficient house in the Arctic derived from the fundamental definition of a passive house, investigations of building parameters including the building envelope and systems, and investigations of boundary situations in the Arctic regions.
The object of the study is to analyse current passive house standards used in the temperate climate through the energy performance of a passive house in the cold climates. In theory, it is possible to completely fulfil the fundamental definition of a passive house in the Arctic and therefore to save the cost of traditional heating, but that would incur high costs for the building materials and the provision of technical solutions of extremely high standards which would take too many years to pay back in the life time of a building. The fundamental definition which applies to all climates can be realized in the Arctic regions at very high costs using fundamental design values and the building technologies available in the Arctic.
vii
Abstract
The Arctic is cli matically ve
ry di fferent from a
temperate climate . In the Arctic regi ons, the ambien t
temperature reaches extr eme values a nd it has a direct large impa ct on the hea t lo ss through
the bui lding envel ope an d it creates problems
with the founda tion due
to the per mafrost . The sola r
pattern is comple tely di
fferent due to
the limited av aila bility in wi nter, yet, in summ er, the
sun is
above horizon for
24 hou rs.
Furtherm ore, the sunrays reach
the vertical op aque elemen ts at
shallow angle s. The great wi nds and storms have la rge eff ects on the in filtration of bui ldi ngs and
they hea vily influen ce the infiltrat ion heat loss through the
building envelope . The
wind patterns
have la rge inf luences on the
loca l microclimate around
the buildin g and create the snow
drift and
problems with thawing, icing and possible co
ndensa tion in the bu ilding env elop e. The humid ity in
the in terior is driven o ut through the bu
ilding envelope in the
winte r due to the p ressure di
fference,
strong wi nds and low water ratio in the outdoor air.
The Arctic is als o defin ed by different conditions
such as buildi ng technique
s and avai lability
of the material s and energy suppl
y.
The passi ve house uses the basic idea of a super ene rgy eff icient hou se in which the norm al
hydronic hea ting system can be omitted.
The sav ings in in vestment for a tradition al hydronic
heating system a
re spent on energy conserving
compone nts such
as in creased in
sulation in
a super airtig ht bui lding sh ell, super eff icien t wi ndows to produce the net positive solar gain , an d
a ventil ation system
wi th very effici ent hea t recovery.
To design a passi ve hou se in the way it is
defined by Wolfgan g Fei
st, the founder of
the Pa ssivhaus Institute, its ann ual hea t demand shoul d
not excee d 15 kWh/(m
∙a) and 2
its total primary energy
demand sho uld not exceed 120 kWh/(
2 m
∙a)
in whi ch t he building envelo pe allows li
mited air chang e of 0.6 h
at -1
50 Pa pressurization. The livin g
area of the bui lding is well defin ed acc ording to the standard conditions
as a net area and the heat
of 10
2 W/m
can just be suppl ied by post-hea ting of fresh air after the hea t reco very uni
t wh ich
ensures a satisfactor y in
door air qua lity.
A passive house also takes advantage of free gains such
as sola r hea t, the hea t fr om its occup ants and
their activities,
and the domestic app
liances, and
other sources.
The hy pot hes is in thi s d iss erta tio n is te stin g th e p oss ibi lity of a new us age of an ex tre me ene rgy
effici ent building in the Arctic . The purpo se of this Ph .D.
study is to determ ine
the optimal us e of
an en erg y e ffic ien t h ous e in th e A rct ic der ive d fr om th e fu nda men tal de fin itio n o f a pa ssi ve hou se,
investig ations
of buildi ng parameters
includin g the buildin
g envelope and systems, and
investiga tions of bound ary situations in
the Arctic r egions.
The ob ject of the study is
to analyse current passive
house standa rds used in the temperat
e
climate through the
energy performanc
e of a passi ve hou se in the cold cli mates. In
theory, it is
possible to completely
fulfil the fundamental defin
ition o f a passive house in the Arctic and
therefo re
to save the cost of tradi tional hea
ting, but that wo uld incur high cost s for the buildi ng mater ials and
the provisi on of technica l s olutions of ext remel y hi gh s tandards whic
h wo uld take too many ye
ars to
pay back in the life time of a buildin g. The fundamental
definition which
applies to all cl imates can
be reali zed in the Ar ctic region s at very high costs usin g funda mental desi
gn values and the
building techn ologies availa
ble in the Arct ic.
viii
Based on th e in vestigatio ns, the optim al ene rgy pe rform ing build ing is deriv ed fr om a passi ve
house concept.
Th e passi ve hou se optimisat ion
follows the main desi
gn rule in the Arctic and this
is
focused on minimiz ing the hea t lo ss bef ore maximizing the hea
t gains followed
by the optimisa tion
of the essential
building ele ments and
the implementa tion of
the necessa ry equ
ipments in the cold
regi ons suc h as a hi ghl y eff icient ventil ation system
wi th hea t recovery.
Furthe rmore,
the impl ementat
ion of a passive house concept in a cold cli mate nee ds to be based on sensib le
solutions regarding mater ial use, and , on a practical leve
l, using available
technol ogie
s and
resources. The adaptati on of a pass ive hou se in the Arctic needs
to take in to ac count al so differ ent
socioeconomi c condi
tions, building tradi tions and use of bui ldings, survival
issue , sustain ability
and
power supply, among others. In
the Arctic, the ene rgy eff icient house based on
a passive house
concept off ers a sustainable solu
tion to the operat ion of the buildi ng with regardi ng the heatin g and
the consu mption of
electr icity, bu t, the energy, money in
vestment and CO
footpr 2
int needed to bui ld
such a house wo
uld be demand ing.
Yet, using these energy
effici ent bui ldings,
there is
an o ppo rtu nity t o im pro ve ind oor c lim ate , hea lth a nd sec urit y tow ard s ext rem e clim ate f or
the in habitant s in the Arctic areas.
Furtherm ore,
the development
and usage of extreme ly
energy eff icient buildi ngs in the Arctic can lead to ne w exper ience s wi th extr emely wel
l-in sulatin g
building comp onents,
airtig ht construct ions and we
ll-fu nctioning ventila tion systems.
viii
Based on the investigations, the optimal energy performing building is derived from a passive house concept. The passive house optimisation follows the main design rule in the Arctic and this is focused on minimizing the heat loss before maximizing the heat gains followed by the optimisation of the essential building elements and the implementation of the necessary equipments in the cold regions such as a highly efficient ventilation system with heat recovery. Furthermore, the implementation of a passive house concept in a cold climate needs to be based on sensible solutions regarding material use, and, on a practical level, using available technologies and resources. The adaptation of a passive house in the Arctic needs to take into account also different socioeconomic conditions, building traditions and use of buildings, survival issue, sustainability and power supply, among others. In the Arctic, the energy efficient house based on a passive house concept offers a sustainable solution to the operation of the building with regarding the heating and
the consumption of electricity, but, the energy, money investment and CO2 footprint needed to build
such a house would be demanding. Yet, using these energy efficient buildings, there is an opportunity to improve indoor climate, health and security towards extreme climate for the inhabitants in the Arctic areas. Furthermore, the development and usage of extremely energy efficient buildings in the Arctic can lead to new experiences with extremely well-insulating building components, airtight constructions and well-functioning ventilation systems.
ix
Resume
Arktis er klimatisk meget forskellig fra et tempereret klima. I de arktiske områder, når den omgivende temperatur ekstreme værdier, hvilket har stor indflydelse på varmetabet gennem klimaskærmen, som skaber problemer under fundamentet på grund af permafrosten. Solens mønster er helt anderledes på grund af den begrænsede anvendelighed om vinteren, men om sommeren står solen over horisonten 24 timer i døgnet. Endvidere bestråler solen lodrette uigennemskinnelige elementer i lave vinkler. De stærke vinde og storme påvirker infiltration af bygninger meget og har stor indflydelse på varmetabet gennem klimaskærmen. Vindens mønstre har store indflydelse på det lokale mikroklima omkring bygningen og skabe snedrive, samt problemer med optøning, isdannelse og mulig kondens i klimaskærmen. Fugtigheden indendørs drives ud igennem klimaskærmen om vinteren grundet trykforskellen, kraftig vind, samt et lavt vandindhold i luften udenfor. Arktis er også defineret ved forskellige forhold som byggeteknikker og tilgængeligheden af materialer og energiforsyning.
Passivhuse princippet benytter den grundlæggende idé med et super energieffektiv hus, hvor det normale vandbaserede varmeanlæg kan udelades. Besparelserne opnåede ved investering i et traditionel vandbaseret varmesystem bruges på energibesparende komponenter såsom øget isolering, super lufttæt klimaskærm, energi effektive vinduer til opnåelse af solvarme, og et ventilationssystem med en meget effektiv varmegenvinding. At designe et passivhus ud fra metoden defineret af Wolfgang Feist, grundlæggeren af Passivhaus Institut, må husets årlige
varmebehov ikke overstiger 15 kWh/(m2∙a), og det samlede primære energibehov må ikke
overstige 120 kWh/(m2∙a). Luftskiftet for huset skal ligeledes begrænses til 0,6 h-1 ved et overtryk
på 50 Pa. Beboelsesarealet er veldefineret i henhold til normen som et nettoareal, og varmen på
10 W/m2 kan leveres af opvarmet frisk luft, igennem varmegenvinding enheden der sikrer en
tilfredsstillende indendørs luftkvalitet. Et passivhus benytter også fordelen i de gratis gevinster, såsom solvarme, intern varmetilskud fra personer og husholdningsapparater, samt andre kilder.
Hypotesen opsat i denne afhandling er at teste muligheden for en ny anvendelse af en ekstrem energieffektiv bygning i det Arktiske. Formålet med denne Ph.D. afhandling er at bestemme den optimale udnyttelse af et energieffektiv hus i Arktis med udgangspunkt i den grundlæggende definition af et passivhus, undersøgelser af bygnings parametrer herunder klimaskærmen og systemer, og undersøgelser af de afgrænsene situationer i de arktiske områder.
Formålet med undersøgelsen er at analysere aktuelle passivhus standarder, som anvendes i tempererede klimaer, gennem den energimæssige ydeevne af et passiv hus under aktiske forhold.
Det er i teorien muligt at opfylde de grundlæggende definitioner af et passivhus i Arktis og dermed spare udgifterne til traditionel opvarmning, men dette ville medføre store omkostninger i form af byggematerialer, levering af tekniske løsninger af meget høj standard, hvilket ville tage mange år at tilbagebetale i relation til bygningens levetid. Den grundlæggende definition, der gælder i alle klima zone kan realiseres i de arktiske regioner med meget store omkostninger ved benyttelse af grundlæggende design værdier, samt de bygningensteknologier der er til rådighed i Arktis.
Baseret på undersøgelser, stammer den optimale energimæssige bygning fra passivhus konceptet.
Passivhus optimering følger de vigtigste design reglen i Arktis, og det er fokuseret på at minimere ix
Resume
Arktis er klim atisk meget
fors kellig fra et tempereret
kli ma.
I de arkt iske områder , n
år den
omgivende temperatur ekstrem
e vær dier, hvil ket h ar stor in dflydelse p å varm etabet g
enn em
klimaskær men,
som skab er proble mer u
nde r fund amentet på
grund a f per mafrosten . So lens
mønster er hel t and erledes
på grund af den beg rænsede anv endel ighed om vinteren,
men om
sommer en står sole n ove r horiso nten 24
timer i døgnet . En dvide re bestråler solen
lodret te
uigen nems kinnelige
elementer i lave vi nkler.
De stærke vind e o g stor me p åvirker infiltratio n a
f
bygning er meget og har stor in dflydelse på
varm etabet g
enn em klim askærmen
. Vi ndens mønstr e
har s tor e i ndf lyd els e p å d et lok ale m ikr okl im a o mkr ing b ygn ing en og s kab e s ned riv e, sam t
problemer med optøning,
isda nnelse o
g muli g kon dens i kl imaskærmen
. F ugtighed en inde ndørs
drives ud ige nnem kli maskær men om vinteren grunde
t tr ykforskelle n, kraftig vind, samt et la vt
vandin dhold i lu ften udenfor . Arktis er ogs å defin eret ve d fors kellige forhold som byggetekn ikker o
g
tilgænge ligh eden af mater ial er o g ene rgifors yning.
Passivhus e princi ppet be nytt er den grundl æggende idé
med e t su per ene rgieffektiv
hu s, hv or de t
normale vandba serede
varm eanlæg kan udelades.
Be sparelserne
opnåed e ved in vestering
i e t tr aditionel vandb aseret varm
esystem bruges p å ene rgibespa
rende kompo nenter
såsom øget
isoleri ng, supe r lufttæ t klimaskær m,
energi effekti ve vinduer til opnå else af solvarm e, og
et v ent ila tio nss yst em m ed en m ege t e ffe ktiv v arm ege nvi ndi ng.
A t d esi gne e t p ass ivh us ud fra
metoden defi neret a
f Wolfgan g Feist
, grundl æggeren
af Pa ssivhaus Institut
, m å husets å rlige
varmebe hov ikke overstig er 15
kWh/(m
∙a), 2
og det s am led e p rim ære e ner gib eho v m å ik ke
overstige 120 kWh/(
2 m
∙a). L ufts kift et f or h use t s kal lig ele des be græ nse s ti l 0,
-1 6 h
ved et overtryk
på 50 Pa.
B ebo els esa rea let er ve lde fin ere t i hen hol d ti l n orm en som et ne tto are al, og va rm en på
10 W
2 /m
kan leveres af opvarmet frisk
lu ft, igenn em varm egenvind
ing enh eden d er sikrer e n
tilfredsstillen de inde ndørs luft kvalitet . E t passi vhus benytter også fordelen
i d e gratis gevinster
,
såsom solva rme, in tern var metilskud fra pe
rsoner og hush oldn
ings appa rater, samt andre kilder.
Hypotesen opsat i den ne afhandl ing er at teste mulighe den for en ny anven del se af en ek strem
energieffekt iv bygni
ng i de t Arktis ke. Formålet med den
ne P h.D. afhandl ing er
at bestem me den
optimale udnytt else af et ene rgieffektiv
hus i Arktis med udgan
gspunkt i de n grundl æggend
e
definition af et passivh us, und ersøgels
er af bygnings
parametr er
herunder k limaskær men og
systemer, og und ersøgelser af
de a fgræn sene situationer i de arkt
iske områder.
Formålet med undersøgelsen
er at analysere aktuel
le p assivh us standard er,
som anve ndes
i temper erede klima
er, gennem den energimæssige yd eevne af
et p assiv hus under
aktiske forhol d.
Det er i teorie n muli gt at opfylde de grun dlæggen de defini tioner af et passi vhus i Arktis
og der med
spare udg ifterne til tr aditionel opv armni ng, men det te vil le me dføre stor
e o mkostni nger i fo rm
af bygge materia
ler, leverin g af tekniske løsn
inger af meget høj stand
ard, hvil ket vil le tage mange
år
at tilba gebetale i relatio n til bygni ngens levetid
. De n g rundlæggen
de definition , der gæld er i alle
klima zone k an reali seres i de arktiske regi oner med meget store
omkostninger ved benytt else af
grundlæggende desig n værdie
r, sam t de bygni ngensteknolo
gie r der er til rådigh ed i Arkt
is.
Baseret på unde rsøgelser, stam
mer den optimale
ene rgimæ ssige b ygning fra passivhu s ko ncept et.
Passivhus optimer
ing følger de vigtigste design regle n i Arktis, og det er fokuseret på at
minimer e
x
varmetabet før
varmen tilskud det mak simeres
efter fulgt a f en optimering af
de væsentligste
bygning sdele, samt gen nemfør elsen af de t nødvend ige ekvipering, som et
meget effektiv
t
ventilatio nsanlæg med
varmege nvindin g, i de arkt iske region er. De suden skal
genn emførel
sen af
et passi vhus konce
pt i arktisk kli ma vær e baser et på fornuftige
løsninger med hensyn
til
materia leforbr ug, og på det praktiske pl
an, ved hj ælp af tilgæn gelig e teknolo gie r og ressourcer. De
r
skal ligel ede s tage s høj de for fors kellig e socioøko nomiske forhold,
byggesk ik og brugen af
bygning er, bæredygtighed
og str ømforsyning , ved tilpasninge n
af et passivhus
i Arktis .
Et ene rgieffektive
hus i arktisk som er ba seret på et p assivhus kon cept tilbyder bæredygtig lø
sning
for drift en af bygni ngen med hen syn til opvarmnin g og
forbrug af el , men dette vil
vær e meget
krævende at bygge så dan et hus grundet ene rgien , d en økonomis ke in
vestering og CO
-aft 2
rykket.
Men ved at bygge d isse ene rgieffektiv
e bygninge r, er
der mulighed for at
forbedre inde klima,
sundhed og sikre beb oerne mod ekstrem vejr i de arkt iske egne . De suden k an udvi klin gen og
brugen af ekstremt
energie ffektive bygni
nger i Arkti s før e til nye opl evelser med ekstremt
godt
isoleren de bygni
ngsdele, lufttæt konst ruktio
ner og velfungerend e ventila
tionsanl æg.
x
varmetabet før varmen tilskuddet maksimeres efterfulgt af en optimering af de væsentligste bygningsdele, samt gennemførelsen af det nødvendige ekvipering, som et meget effektivt ventilationsanlæg med varmegenvinding, i de arktiske regioner. Desuden skal gennemførelsen af et passivhus koncept i arktisk klima være baseret på fornuftige løsninger med hensyn til materialeforbrug, og på det praktiske plan, ved hjælp af tilgængelige teknologier og ressourcer. Der skal ligeledes tages højde for forskellige socioøkonomiske forhold, byggeskik og brugen af bygninger, bæredygtighed og strømforsyning, ved tilpasningen af et passivhus i Arktis.
Et energieffektive hus i arktisk som er baseret på et passivhus koncept tilbyder bæredygtig løsning for driften af bygningen med hensyn til opvarmning og forbrug af el, men dette vil være meget
krævende at bygge sådan et hus grundet energien, den økonomiske investering og CO2-aftrykket.
Men ved at bygge disse energieffektive bygninger, er der mulighed for at forbedre indeklima, sundhed og sikre beboerne mod ekstrem vejr i de arktiske egne. Desuden kan udviklingen og brugen af ekstremt energieffektive bygninger i Arktis føre til nye oplevelser med ekstremt godt isolerende bygningsdele, lufttæt konstruktioner og velfungerende ventilationsanlæg.
xi
Symbols and abbreviations
Agross Gross heated area [m2]
Ai Surface area [m2]
ATFA Treated floor area [m2]
Aw Window area [m2]
cAIR Heat capacity of air [Wh/(m3·K)]
O Oil consumption [litres]
D Number of days [-]
ø diameter of insulated pipe [mm], [m]
e Ratio of total floor area to footprint area [-]
fT Temperature factor [-]
g, g-value Solar energy transmittance [-]
G Solar radiation on vertical surfaces [kWh/(m2·a)]
Gh Global radiation horizontal [kWh/(m2·a)]
Gk Global radiation on tilted surface [kWh/(m2·a)]
HDH Heating degree hours [kKh/a]
HDD Heating degree days [Kd/a]
λ Thermal conductivity [W/(m∙K)]
li Length of outer thermal bridges [m]
n Infiltration at normal pressure [h-1]
ηHR Efficiency of heat exchanger system [-]
ninfiltration Infiltration air change rate [h-1]
nV Effective air change rate [h-1]
nV,System Average air change rate [h-1]
n50 Air change rate at 50 Pa [h-1]
η Efficiency [%], [-]
q50 Leakage rate at 50 Pa [l/s m2]
QT Transmission heat loss [kWh]
QV Ventilation heat loss [kWh]
Qinf Infiltration heat loss [kWh]
QI Internal heat gains [kWh]
QS Solar gains [kWh]
xi
Symbols and abbrevi ations
A
gross
Gross heated area
2 [m
]
A Surfa i
ce area
2 [m
]
A
Treated TFA
floo r area
2 [m
]
A
Win w
dow area
2 [m
]
c
Heat ca AIR
pacity of ai r [Wh/(m
·K)] 3
O Oil consum
ption [litres]
D Num
ber o f days [-]
ø diameter o
f insul ated pipe
[mm], [m]
e Ratio o
f tot al fl oor area to fo otprint ar
ea [-]
f
Temper T
ature factor [-]
g, g-v alue Solar en
ergy tr ansmitta nce [-]
G Solar ra
diation on vertical s urfaces
[kWh/(m
·a) 2
]
Gh Global ra
diation hori zon tal [kWh/(m
·a) 2
]
Gk Global ra
diation on tilted s urface
[kWh/(m
·a) 2
]
HDH Heating
degree h ours
[kKh/a]
HDD Heating
degree d ays
[Kd/a]
λ Therm
al c ondu ctivity [W/(m∙
K)]
l Leng i
th o f outer the rmal bridge s [m]
n Infiltration at n
ormal pressur e
-1 [h
]
η
Effici HR
ency of he at exchan ger s ystem [-]
n
infiltratio
Infil n
tration a ir change rat e
-1 [h
]
n
Effective a V
ir change rate
-1 [h
]
n
V,Syst
Aver em
age air change rate
-1 [h
]
n
Air change rat 50
e at 50 P a
-1 [h
]
η Efficiency
[%
], [- ]
q
Leakage rat 50
e at 50 Pa [l/s m
] 2
Q
Tran T
smiss ion h eat l oss [kWh]
Q
Ven V
tilation h eat loss [kWh]
Q
Infil inf
tration h eat loss [kWh]
Q Inte I
rnal heat g ains [kWh]
Q
Solar g S
ains [kWh]
xii
ψ Linear hea
t co efficient [W/
(m·K )]
r Shadin i
g factor [-]
ρ Air density (1.
2 kg/m
) 3
[kg/m
] 3
S Solar i
radiati on on vertical s urface
[kWh/m
] 2
T
supply
Temper ature of the supply a ir after th e heat exchan
ger [ºC]
T
ext
Extract a ract
ir tempe ratu re [ºC]
T
amb,j
, T
ambi
Aver ent
age mon thly tem peratu re [ºC]
T
avg,a
Average an nual ambi
ent tem pera ture [ºC]
T
Base tem base
perat ure [ºC]
T Inte i
rior desi gn temperatu re [ºC]
T
outdo or,d esig
Temper n
ature of ou tdoo r desi gn day [ºC]
T
supply,ai
Maximum s r
upply ai r temper ature [ºC]
U
U-valu i,
e Therm
al tr ansmittance [W/(m
∙K)] 2
V Volum
e of a building
3 [m
]
V
Internal volum net
e of a building
3 [m
]
V
Volum V
e of a ir
3 [m
]
V
Ref RAX
erence volu me of th
e ventilation syst em
3 [m
]
V
Climat 1,2
e scenar ios, t empera tur e diff erence [ºC]
V
Air flow at 50 P 50
a [l/s], [m
] 3
w
Air change rat 50
e at 50 P a [l/s m
] 2
xii
ψ Linear heat coefficient [W/(m·K)]
ri Shading factor [-]
ρ Air density (1.2 kg/m3) [kg/m3]
Si Solar radiation on vertical surface [kWh/m2]
Tsupply Temperature of the supply air after the heat exchanger [ºC]
Textract Extract air temperature [ºC]
Tamb,j, Tambient Average monthly temperature [ºC]
Tavg,a Average annual ambient temperature [ºC]
Tbase Base temperature [ºC]
Ti Interior design temperature [ºC]
Toutdoor,design Temperature of outdoor design day [ºC]
Tsupply,air Maximum supply air temperature [ºC]
Ui, U-value Thermal transmittance [W/(m2∙K)]
V Volume of a building [m3]
Vnet Internal volume of a building [m3]
VV Volume of air [m3]
VRAX Reference volume of the ventilation system [m3]
V1,2 Climate scenarios, temperature difference [ºC]
V50 Air flow at 50 Pa [l/s], [m3]
w50 Air change rate at 50 Pa [l/s m2]
xiii
Content
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Energy use worldwide 1.2 Research questions 1.3 Outline of the thesis 1.4 Objective of the thesis
1 1 3 3 4
Chapter 2 The European passive house
2.1 Definition of a European passive house 2.2 Implementation of a European passive house
5 6 9
Chapter 3 Methods for optimisation
3.1 Background for optimisation methods
3.2 Optimisation methods for a passive house for the Arctic climate 3.3 Conclusion on optimisation
11
11 12 14
Chapter 4 The Arctic
4.1 Definition, climate and population 4.2 Residential buildings in the Arctic
4.3 Building techniques and technologies
4.4 Energy systems in buildings
15 15 17 21 24
Chapter 5 Performance of a fundamental passive house in the Arctic
5.1 Space heating demand 5.2 Heating load
5.3 Primary energy
27 27 30 33 xiii
Content
Chapter 1 Introduc
tion 1.1 Energy use worldwide
1.2 Research questions
1.3 Outlin e of the thesis
1.4 Obj ective of the t
hesis
1 1 3 3 4
Chapter 2 The Europe
an pass ive house
2.1 Definition of a Europe an passive hou
se
2.2 Im plementation of a Euro
pean pass ive house
5 6 9
Chapter 3 Methods for
optimisati on
3.1 B ackgroun d for optimisat ion methods
3.2 Opt imisatio n methods for a passi ve hous e for the Arctic
clim ate
3.3 C onclusio n on optimis ation
1 1
11 12 14
Chapter 4 The Arctic
4.1 Definition, climate and populatio
n
4.2 Residen tial buildings in the Arctic
4.3 Buildi ng te chniques and t echnologies
4.4 Energy systems in bui ldings
15 15 17 21 24
Chapter 5 Perfor
mance of a fundamental
passive hous e in t
he Arctic
5.1 Sp ace heating de
mand
5.2 Heating lo ad
5.3 Primary e nergy
27 27 30 33
xiv
Chapter 6 Evaluati
on of decisi on variables for opti
mising to be develope d for
passive hou ses
in the Ar ctic 35
6.1 Fundamental and national val ues
6.2 The in sulatio n of the b uilding
6.3 Win dows
6.4 Air tig htness
6.5 Heating a nd ventilatio
n systems
35 39 41 45 46
Chapter 7 Qualitative
objectives and challenge
s for passive houses
in the
Arctic cli mate 51
7.1 Thermal comfort 7.2 Sustainab le value
7.3 Temperat ure stabi
lity
7.4 Socio- economic cond itions and
culture gap
7.5 E nergy s upply
51 52 54 56 57
Chapter 8 Adaptati
on and optimisat
ion requirem ents fo
r the use of a pas sive
house in the Arctic
59
8.1 An optimal energy effici ent house based on
a passive house idea
8.3 De sign ap proach for
energy ef ficient bui
ldings in t he Arctic
59 61
Chapter 9 Thesis
summary 9.1 Conclus ions
9.2 Suggestio ns for furt her w ork
65 65 67
Chapter 10 Summary of appen
ded papers 69
Chapter 11 References
71
xiv
Chapter 6 Evaluation of decision variables for optimising to be developed for
passive houses in the Arctic
35
6.1 Fundamental and national values 6.2 The insulation of the building 6.3 Windows
6.4 Air tightness
6.5 Heating and ventilation systems
35 39 41 45 46
Chapter 7 Qualitative objectives and challenges for passive houses in the
Arctic climate
51
7.1 Thermal comfort 7.2 Sustainable value 7.3 Temperature stability
7.4 Socio-economic conditions and culture gap 7.5 Energy supply
51 52 54 56 57
Chapter 8 Adaptation and optimisation requirements for the use of a passive
house in the Arctic
59
8.1 An optimal energy efficient house based on a passive house idea 8.3 Design approach for energy efficient buildings in the Arctic
59 61
Chapter 9 Thesis summary
9.1 Conclusions
9.2 Suggestions for further work
65 65 67
Chapter 10 Summary of appended papers 69
Chapter 11 References 71
xv
Appended papers (I-VI) 77
Paper I
Vladykova P., Rode C., Nielsen T.R., Pedersen S. Passive houses for the
Arctic climates. Passivhus Norden Conference, 2008.
79
Paper II
Bjarløv P., Vladykova P. The potential and need for energy savings in
standard family detached and semi-detached wooden houses in arctic
Greenland. Building and Environment, 2010.
89
Paper III
Vladykova P., Rode C., Kragh J., Kotol M. Low-energy house in Arctic
climate - 5 years of experience. Accepted in the Journal of Cold Regions
Engineering, 2011.
115
Paper IV
Vladykova P., Rode C., Nielsen T.R., Pedersen S. Passive houses in the
Arctic. Measures and alternatives. International Conference on Passive House,
2009.
137
Paper V
Vladykova P., Rode C. The energy potential from the building design’s
differences between Europe and the Arctic. Nordic Symposium on Building
Physics, 2011.
147
Paper VI
Vladykova P., Rode C. The study of an appropriate and reasonable building
solution for Arctic climates based on a passive house concept. Submitted to
the Journal of Cold Regions Engineering, 2011.
159 xv
Appen ded p apers (I
77 -VI)
Paper I
Vladykova P., Ro
de C., Nielsen
T.R., P edersen S. P assive house s for the
Arctic climates . Pass ivh us Nor den C onf ere nce , 2 008 .
79
Paper I I
Bjarløv P., Vl adykova
T P.
he potentia l and
nee d fo r ene rgy savi ngs in
standard fami ly detache d and
semi -detache d wo
oden hou ses in arct ic
Green land . Bui ldin g and Environm
ent, 201 0.
89
Paper I II
Vladykova P.,
Rode C., Kragh J., Ko tol M.
Low -ene rgy hou se in Arctic
climate - 5 years of experie nce.
Acc epted in
the J ournal of Cold Region s
Engine ering, 2 011.
115
Paper I V
Vladykova P.,
Rode C., Nielse n T.R., P edersen S. P assive house s in the
Arctic. Measures and al
ternatives.
Interna tional Confer
ence on Passiv e H ouse,
2009.
137
Paper V Vladykova P., Rod
The ene e C.
rgy po tential fr om the building desi
gn’s
differences betwee
n Eu rope and the Arctic
. N ord ic Sym pos ium o n B uild ing
Phys ics, 2011.
147
Paper VI Vladykova P., Ro
de C.
The study of an appropriate and
reasonabl e bui lding
solution for A rctic climates based on a passi ve ho use conce pt.
Sub mitted to
the Jou rna l o f C old R egi ons En gin eer ing , 2 011 .
159
xvi
xvi
1
1 Introduction
1.1 Energy use worldwide
The environmental impact from human habitation in buildings has increased dramatically in the last half of the twentieth century in which a higher comfort level in buildings has led to a construction of many buildings which use tremendous amounts of non-renewable sources such as electricity and oil. The energy consumed in the building sector originates from both non-renewable and renewable resources. The non-renewable resources are limited and close to depletion, and natural gas and oil resources may be depleted by the year 2050. Furthermore, coal and uranium will run out in the year 2140 [1]. A natural resource is a non-renewable resource often used in the building sector, i.e. replaced by natural processes and parts of the natural environment and eco-system.
The renewable resources are wind power, hydropower, solar energy, geothermal energy, bio fuel and biomass.
Energy use in the world is divided between three major sectors: the transport, building and industry sectors with the following distributions (Fig. 1). In the European Union, residential and office buildings together use up to 25% [2] whilst approximately 40% of the total energy consumption is used in the building sector in developed countries, i.e. USA: 22% in residential and 19% in commercial buildings [3]. The energy consumed in the building sector comprises energy needed to cover heating / cooling, hot water consumption, lighting, electricity and other areas. The amount of energy used per household varies widely and depends on standard of living, climate, and building structures. The average household in a temperate climate has an annual household energy use of total 20,000 kWh/a (Fig. 2) [4].
Fig. 1. Primary energy use in EU in 2008 [2]
Reduction of energy demand and energy consumption in buildings is the key factors in reducing the depletion of natural resources and limiting emission pollutants. The desire for a better energy scenario demands more sensible solutions within the building sector, specifically speaking of residential housing, commercial buildings and other buildings offering services. The current
average total energy consumption in buildings is 250 kWh/(m2·a) or higher in Germany [5]. As seen
Residential and services
36%
Non-energy use 9%
Industry 28%
Transport 27%
Residential and services Non-energy use Industry Transport
1
1 Introduction
1.1 Energy use world
wide
The env ironmental impa
ct from human habi
tatio n in bui ldings has increased dra
matically in th e la st
half of the twentie th century
in which a hig her comf ort le vel in bu ildings has led to a constructio
n of
many bui ldings which use tr emendous
amounts of non -re newable sources such as
electr icity and
oil.
The e nergy consumed in the bui ldi ng sector originates
from both non-renewable and
ren ewa ble
resources. The non -renewable resources
are limited and close
to deple tion, and natural gas and
oil
resources may be dep leted by the year 2050.
Furthermore, coal and uranium will
run out in
the year 2140 [1]. A natural resource
is a non -renewab le resource
oft en used in th e bu ildin g sec tor,
i.e. replac ed
by natural processes a
nd parts of the
natural environment and eco -sy stem.
The re new abl e r eso urc es are w ind po wer , h ydr opo wer , s ola r e ner gy, ge oth erm al e ner gy, bi o fu el
and biomass.
Energy use in the wo rld is divided between three
major sectors:
the transpo rt, bui ldin g and in dustr y
sectors wi th the follo wing di strib utions (Fig . 1 ). In the Eu ropean Union, resi dential and off ice
buildings together
use up to 25%
[2] wh ilst approx imately 40% of
the tot al ene rgy consu mption is
used in the building sector
in devel oped countrie s, i.e.
USA:
22% in resid ential
and 1 9% in
commercial bui ldings [3]
. The ene rgy co nsumed in
the building sector comprises ene
rgy nee ded to
cover hea ting / coolin g, hot wa ter consu mption, lighting,
el ectrici ty and other areas. The
amount of
energy used per househol d varies widely
and de pends on standard of livi ng, cli mate, and build ing
structur es. Th e average ho usehold in a temperate climate
has an annual hou sehol d en ergy use of
total 20,000 kWh/a (Fig
. 2) [ 4].
Fig. 1.
Primary energy use in EU i
n 2008 [2]
Reductio n of energy demand and
ene rgy consumption in bui ldi ngs is the key factors in reducing the
deple tion of natural resources
and li miting emission
pol lutants.
The desi re for a better ene rgy
scenario demands more sensi
ble solutions withi
n the build ing sector, spe cifically speaking
of
residentia l h ousing, commercial buil
dings and oth
er bui ldi ngs off ering servi
ces. The cu rren t
average tot al ene rgy consum ption in
bui ldi ngs is 250 kWh/(
2 m
·a) or highe r in Germany [5]. As seen
Resident ial an
d 36% services
Non-en ergy use 9%
Indu
stry 28%
Transpo rt 27%
Resident ial an d services
Non-en ergy use
Indu stry
Transpo rt
2
in Fig . 2 , the la rgest amount of consu
med ene rgy in a hou sehold is related to
the hea ting of
the bui ldings and
it is us ual ly more than
half of the tot al consum ption. An
nual ene rgy us ed for
space heating varies for resi
dentia l hou ses in a t emperate climate f
rom 100 to 25 0 kWh/(m
·a) [5] 2
.
Fig. 2.
Ene rgy use in a house hold in a
tempera te climat e of Germa
[4] ny
Reviewin g th e national Statistics
for co untries wi
th a cold climate provides
inform ation on
en ergy
consumption in these col
d countries wh
ich vari es fr om 181 kWh/(
2 m
·a) in Norway [6]
,
213 k Wh/
2 (m
·a) in Canada [7]
, to 416 kWh/(
2 m
·a) in Gr eenla nd [8]
. The hea ting consu mption is
covered by n atural resour ces, e.g.
oil based h eating system or electr icity systems.
Re newable
resources are being experimented
with and they are slowly bei ng adopted to supply this ene rgy
through hydropo wer
and wind power, among others.
Ho wever energy obtain ed fr om na tural
resources is more oft en used due to avail ability and it is curr ently cheap
er due to the absence of
Valu e Adde d Tax.
Those regions wi
th extr emel y cold cl imates represent chal
lenges for building construction
of ene rgy
effici ent hou sin g. The bu ilding cha lleng es are based on
the followin g criter
ia: envi ronmental
conditio ns, lif estyles and
constr uction seaso
n. The harsh environmenta
l condi tions are
characterized by prevalent
low temperatures, drift ing snow and str ong wind.
In cold cl imate region s,
different lifest yles, which include a
wide range of cu ltures and lifes tyles, exist
and some of these
can gen erate consi derable
moisture indo
ors and oft en require a hi gh indoo r tempe rature.
The shor t
constructio n season is defined by hi gh tr ansportation costs and d ifficul ties due to the remoteness of
the region , the availabi lity of skil led labo ur and hig h technol ogy equi pment, and hi gh ene rgy costs
[9].
Firstly, it is important to bring
focus to the bad stat e of the hou ses in the Arctic region
s, as many
houses offer unsuitab le living conditions wi
th hig h en ergy costs.
Thu s, it is imp ortant to come up
with new i deas for hi ghly energy effici ent bui ldings wh ich wil l improve both existi
ng and new
houses.
There is a need for super ene rgy eff icient houses with a mini mum yet reasonabl
e use of
energy with in the cultural, technical
and envi ronmental aspects
in th e extr eme clim ate of the Arctic.
Theref ore, th e relevance o
f this st udy is sign
ificant f or the Arctic regi
ons.
Heating
60% n r ptio 15% sum Hot wate con
Cooling (refrig
erato
r) 6%
Ligh
ting 6%
Washi ng an d 5% drying Cookin g 5%
Electricit y 3%
Heating Hot wate r consumpt
ion g tor) d dryin rigera y (refg ng an ting Cooling Ligh Washi Cookin Electricit
2
in Fig. 2, the largest amount of consumed energy in a household is related to the heating of the buildings and it is usually more than half of the total consumption. Annual energy used for
space heating varies for residential houses in a temperate climate from 100 to 250 kWh/(m2·a) [5].
Fig. 2. Energy use in a household in a temperate climate of Germany [4]
Reviewing the national Statistics for countries with a cold climate provides information on energy
consumption in these cold countries which varies from 181 kWh/(m2·a) in Norway [6],
213 kWh/(m2·a) in Canada [7], to 416 kWh/(m2·a) in Greenland [8]. The heating consumption is
covered by natural resources, e.g. oil based heating system or electricity systems. Renewable resources are being experimented with and they are slowly being adopted to supply this energy through hydropower and wind power, among others. However energy obtained from natural resources is more often used due to availability and it is currently cheaper due to the absence of Value Added Tax.
Those regions with extremely cold climates represent challenges for building construction of energy efficient housing. The building challenges are based on the following criteria: environmental conditions, lifestyles and construction season. The harsh environmental conditions are characterized by prevalent low temperatures, drifting snow and strong wind. In cold climate regions, different lifestyles, which include a wide range of cultures and lifestyles, exist and some of these can generate considerable moisture indoors and often require a high indoor temperature. The short construction season is defined by high transportation costs and difficulties due to the remoteness of the region, the availability of skilled labour and high technology equipment, and high energy costs [9].
Firstly, it is important to bring focus to the bad state of the houses in the Arctic regions, as many houses offer unsuitable living conditions with high energy costs. Thus, it is important to come up with new ideas for highly energy efficient buildings which will improve both existing and new houses. There is a need for super energy efficient houses with a minimum yet reasonable use of energy within the cultural, technical and environmental aspects in the extreme climate of the Arctic.
Therefore, the relevance of this study is significant for the Arctic regions.
Heating
Hot water 60%
consumption 15%
Cooling (refrigerator)
6%
Lighting 6%
Washing and drying
5%
Cooking 5%
Electricity
3% Heating
Hot water consumption Cooling (refrigerator) Lighting
Washing and drying Cooking Electricity
