Luxury and the Female
Consumers’ Identity Project
"People buy products not only for what they can do, but also for what they mean'' (Levy, 1959, p. 118)
Master Thesis Cand.merc (BCM)
Copenhagen Business School
Line Hoe Brandt Skydsgaard (student no. 2239) Malene Raahauge Lundgaard (student no. 91887)
15th of May 2019
Number of Characters/Pages: 250.284 (110) Supervisor: Hanne Pico Larsen
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Abstract
Luxury has become democratised and thereby available for a larger population. With this development, the symbolism and cultural meaning that a brand has, have become more important in the consumption of products and brands. This study highlights the relationship between luxury goods and female consumers’ identity project from a Consumer Culture Theory perspective. It examines how concepts such as the extended self, collections, multiple selves, tribes, stigma and authenticity influence the female consumers’ identity project. This study also examines what happens to female consumers’ identity when a brand or product becomes mainstream.
This study uses qualitative methods such as a focus group and eight individual interviews with Danish female consumers to examine how female consumers create their identity through the consumption of luxury goods. This study shows that luxury is difficult to define, as it is very subjective how luxury is perceived. The female consumers define that luxury possesses attributes such as quality, uniqueness and it is generally seen as something above the usual. The female consumers in this study primarily use the symbolism, that luxury products and brands can provide, to signal that they are well-balanced and in control of their lives (Danish: Styr på det). The concept of being in control is considered to be their ultimate goal. When buying luxury goods, female consumers are also searching for an aspect of uniqueness. If a brand or product have become mainstream, they will avoid it, as the symbolic meaning is not aligned with their identity. It is also concluded, that the product or brand should not be too unique, as the female consumers’ fear stigmatisation and are also searching for ways to fit in among their tribes. In their identity project, the female consumers try to stay true to themselves. They are challenged by their multiple identities that do not always align. This study further concludes that the identity project of female consumers is continuously evolving.
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Table of Content
1. Introduction ... 6
1.1 Research question ... 7
1.2 Delimitations ... 8
1.3 Structure of the Study ... 9
2 Literature Review ... 10
2.1 Consumer Culture Theory ... 10
2.1.1 CCT Research Domains... 11
2.1.1.1 Consumer Identity Project ... 11
2.1.1.2 Marketplace Cultures ... 11
2.1.2 Critique of Consumer Culture Theory ... 12
2.2 Luxury ... 13
2.2.1 Values of Luxury ... 14
2.3 Consumer Identity Project ... 15
2.3.1 The Extended Self... 16
2.3.2 Collections ... 18
2.3.3 Cultural Meaning ... 18
2.3.4 Symbolic Meaning ... 19
2.3.5 Multiple Selves ... 20
2.3.6 Tribes ... 22
2.3.7 Uniqueness ... 23
2.3.8 Stigma ... 24
2.4 Authenticity ... 25
2.4.1 Self-Authentication ... 26
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2.5 Status and the Trickle-Down Theory ... 28
3 Methodology ... 32
3.1 Philosophy of Science ... 32
3.1.1 Social Constructivism ... 32
3.1.2 Inductive Research ... 33
3.2 Research design ... 34
3.2.1 Focus Group ... 35
3.2.2 In-depth Interviews ... 35
3.2.3 Preparation ... 37
3.2.4 Respondents ... 38
3.2.5 The Interview Environment ... 38
3.2.6 Transcribing ... 39
3.3 Quality of Research ... 40
3.3.1 Objectivity ... 40
3.3.2 Validity ... 41
3.3.3 Reliability ... 41
3.4 Limitations ... 42
3.5 Data Analysis ... 42
3.5.1 Grounded Theory ... 42
4 Findings ... 44
4.1 Luxury ... 44
4.2 Unachievable Luxury ... 45
4.3 Achievable Luxury ... 45
4.4 Everyday Luxury ... 46
4.5 Common denominators ... 47
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4.2 Consumer Identity Project ... 49
4.2.1 Cultural Meaning ... 49
4.2.1.1 Symbols ... 52
4.2.1.2 Is Image Important? ... 57
4.2.1.3 Changes in the Symbolic Meaning ... 58
4.2.1.4 Collections ... 60
4.2.2 Multiple selves ... 63
4.2.2.1 Ideal self ... 63
4.2.2.2 Expected self ... 65
4.2.2.3 Feared self ... 66
4.2.2.4 Actual self ... 68
4.2.3 Styr på det ... 70
4.2.4 Tribes ... 74
4.3 Self-Authentication... 80
4.3.1 Not self-authenticating ... 83
4.3.2 Uniqueness and mainstream ... 84
4.3.2.1 Trickle-Down Theory ... 90
5 Discussion ... 95
5.1 Luxury ... 95
5.1.1 Alternative Luxury ... 95
5.1.2 Uniqueness ... 96
5.2 Cultural Meaning and Brand Avoidance ... 98
5.2.1 Identity Brand Avoidance ... 99
5.2.2 Moral Brand Avoidance ... 100
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5.3 Acknowledgement and Compliments ... 101
5.4 Contradiction in the Authentic-Self ... 103
5.4.1 Self-authentication ... 103
5.4.2 Ideal self ... 104
5.5 Identity project ... 106
6 Conclusion ... 107
6.1 Luxury ... 107
6.2 Identity ... 108
6.3 Negotiation ... 110
7 Managerial Implications ... 112
8 Further Research ... 115
8.1 Lack of Resources ... 115
8.2 Gender ... 115
8.3 Life Stage ... 116
8.4 Case Study ... 116
9 References ... 117
10 Appendix ... 123
10.1 Appendix Overview ... 123
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1. Introduction
“Once upon a time the meaning of luxury was part aspiration, part exclusivity and part too expensive for most to afford” (Adegeest, 2018).
Today more and more consumers can get a taste of luxury as the industry has been democratised.
The democratisation means that luxury goods have become more widely accessible to a larger part of the consumers that would not otherwise have been able to obtain them in the past. The cause of this movement is the improved living standards and luxury brands offering less expensive diffusion brands (Turunen, 2018). Luxury has, as a result, become more available for the everyday consumer.
The change poses a question of how the consumer value luxury and the meaning behind it. As it is well known within consumption studies, the consumer uses objects and possessions to gain a sense of self. The research field of Consumer Culture Theory argues that the consumer uses consumption and market offerings to gain a sense of identity and form communities (Arnould & Thompson, 2005).
As the consumption of luxury goods changes, it proposes a question of how this influences the consumers’ use of luxury goods in their identity project. It is interesting to explore how consumers use luxury in their identity formation and the conflicts that can occur.
To study the phenomenon of luxury and its influence on the consumers’ identity project, the focus is on female consumers. This focus is chosen because the female consumers rely more on consumption to achieve a sense of self (Patrick, MacInnis, & Folkes, 1995). As luxury goods are often highly symbolic and often chosen for their symbolic values (Vigneron & Johanson, 2004), they are also a good representation of the consumers’ identity. Luxury goods are often not bought for their necessity, meaning they are often bought with the intention to signal a specific image that the symbolic consumption of the goods can provide. It is essential to understand how the consumers react to a democratisation of luxury.
The notions of identity and luxury are both socially constructed and very complex. The goal of this research is to not only obtain an understanding of what the consumers buy but also the network of interactions, culture, and the meaning behind the consumption. The base of this study will be existing literature and theory. Further, the study will rely on female consumers’ narrations to gain an understanding of their explanations for consuming luxury goods. The consumers are active
Side 7 af 255 identity-seekers driven to find their identity, and the female consumers’ stories will show their desire to form an identity (Arnould & Thompson, 2005).
Overall the academic purpose of this study is to enhance the knowledge within the socially constructed phenomena of consumer behaviour and consumption. The contributions will build upon the knowledge already obtained in the existing literature and theory within the academic field of consumer behaviour. This study will further the research area closer to a more comprehensive understanding of the consumers.
1.1 Research question
The introduction shows that luxury goods have become available to a larger population, which may influence the consumers’ identity project. The research question of this study is:
What is the importance of luxury goods in the creation of female consumers’ identity?
The research question contains multiple facets. The following sub-questions will therefore also be explored:
How is luxury defined by female consumers?
How do female consumers manage their identity project?
What challenges are posed to the female consumers’ identity project in their consumption of luxury goods?
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1.2 Delimitations
This study will be conducted within the academic field of consumer behaviour. As consumer behaviour is a vast research field, the primary focus will be on the consumer identity project and authenticity. It is the cultural and symbolic meanings of goods and brands from the perspective of Danish consumers that will be examined.
This study examines the consumer behaviour of young female consumers in Denmark. Female consumers were chosen as they are assumed to have larger knowledge and an increased interest in the meanings of products and brands compared to men (Patrick, MacInnis, & Folkes, 1995). Female consumers are also assumed to care more about what they signal with certain brands and products.
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1.3 Structure of the Study
Figure 1: Structure of the study
Source: Own creation (2019)
•This section introduces that this study is conducted within the research field of Consumer Culture Theory. It further introduces the specific topic along with the research question and the delimitations.
1 Introduction
•This section present an overview of the literature within Consumer Culture Theory that is considered relevant in answering the research question. The literature review provides an understanding of concepts such as luxury consumption, identity project, consumer tribes, and the authentic self.
2 Theoretical Foundation
•The methodology section presents an overview of the qualitative methods used to explore the research question. Among these are a focus group and in-depth interivews.
3 Methodology
•This section presents the findings of the data collection in relation to the reviewed literature and theory.
4 Findings
•This section discusses some of the contradictions that were found in the analysis. It further discusses the findings and their alignment with the theoretical foundation.
5 Discussion
•This section presents the overall conclusions of this study, including an answer to the overall research question and the sub-questions.
6 Conclusion
•This section presents the findings of this study in relation to some of the issues that brand managers should be aware of.
7 Managerial Implications
•In this section, it is suggested what topics in relation to this study could otherwise be interesting to investigate further.
8 Further Research
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2 Literature Review
The following chapter will present the theoretical foundation for this study. The relevant literature, have been selected in order to provide an answer to the research question. The theoretical concepts will contribute to the choice of research design.
2.1 Consumer Culture Theory
The overall research area is consumer culture theory (henceforth CCT). According to Arnould and Thompson (2005), CCT is not a unified field of research. Instead, it is a field of “(…) theoretical perspective that addresses the dynamic relationships between consumer actions, the marketplace, and cultural meanings” (Arnould & Thompson, 2005, p. 868). The objective of CCT is to obtain a profound and systematic understanding of consumer behaviour. The understanding is achieved by studying the individual meaning and cultural processes and place them in relation to the marketplace context. Instead of a more traditional understanding of culture as homogenous, where culture and meanings are unified and shared. CCT explores culture as a more heterogeneous supply of meaning, where values are diverse and overlapping. In CCT, consumer culture is a frame of experiences, meanings, and actions derived from consumers’ behaviour (Arnould & Thompson, 2005).
CCT is highly relevant for this study, as it can highlight the consumers’ choice of marketplace offerings. CCT is also the study of negotiation of meaning among consumers and marketplace actors.
The study of meaning can be done at both an individual and collective level (Arnould & Thompson, 2005).
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2.1.1 CCT Research Domains
The field of CCT is divided into four research domains: consumer identity projects, marketplace cultures, the socio-historical pattering of consumption and mass-mediated marketplace ideologies and consumers’ interpretative strategies. It is difficult to separate the domains, as all four domains overlap and are interrelated. A study can potentially tap into all four fields (Arnould & Thompson, 2005). The focus of this study is primarily within the domains of consumer identity projects and marketplace cultures.
2.1.1.1 Consumer Identity Project
Researchers within the domain of Consumer Identity Project study the consumer as an identity seeker. The consumer uses the opportunities and resources available in the marketplace to form an identity. The concept is considered the consumer’s identity project. This research field’s primary notion is that the marketplace has become a source of symbolic resources. Through the symbolic resources, consumers can and will construct their identity (Arnould & Thompson, 2005). One of the fundamental cornerstones of the consumer identity project is the relationship between consumers and possessions. One of the most iconic papers, within this line of research, are Belk’s (1988) extension of self. The marketplace and their narratives also influence consumers’ identity (Arnould
& Thompson, 2005).
2.1.1.2 Marketplace Cultures
Within the domain of Marketplace Cultures, researchers view consumers as culture producers. The main question within this stream of research is how consumption “(…) as a dominant human practice reconfigure cultural blueprints (…)” (Arnould & Thompson, 2005, p. 873). This stream of research examines how marketplace cultures are instigated and what the consumers derive from it.
The consumers create and become a part of communities based on shared beliefs, meanings and rituals through their consumption (Arnould & Thompson, 2005).
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2.1.2 Critique of Consumer Culture Theory
CCT is a very complex research field, as it is consumers’ subjective opinions that are studied. It is essential to understand how CCT can contribute to highlight these subjective opinions. The weaknesses of CCT are also essential to understand. Awareness of the strength and weaknesses of CCT need to be accounted for in both the methodology and analysis. The most relevant weaknesses in relation to this study will be elaborated in this section.
Askegaard and Linnet (2011) criticise CCT for being too focused on the socio-cultural context and not going beyond it to include the socio-historical context. They further elaborate that CCT only captures the individual consumer at a certain point in time. CCT researchers do not focus on the more overall social systems in the market. The general point is a call for the context of context (Askegaard & Linnet, 2011). Firat and Dholakia (2017) also mention that projects on a larger scale are conducted in fields such as sociology and anthropology. These research project should also be conducted in the field of CCT.
Firat and Dholakia (2017) further mention critique points such as the methodological rigidities. They declare “(…) we do not see a thorough understanding of the implications of the distinction between measuring data points and generating rich text in the discussions of methods in the CCT literature”
(Firat & Dholokia, 2017, p. 201). They call for quantitative data to meet the validity and reliability standards. Firat and Dholakia (2017) further mention that CCT research tends to look at the individual consumer in a specific context and at a certain point in time thereby researching “(…) constructs that are temporally and contextually bound (…)” (Firat & Dholokia, 2017, p. 206). CCT is also criticised for researchers simply citing each other and lack of including the original social theoretical fields. As a result, the academic field of CCT becomes frozen in time.
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2.2 Luxury
The focus of this study will be on luxury goods. Luxury consumption has a hedonic nature and can be an essential aspect of understanding luxury. Luxury goods should possess a personal and hedonistic aspect (Turunen, 2018). Hedonic consumption of brands “(…) involves multi-sensory and emotive aspects of the consumer’s experiences with products” (Cardoso & Pinto, 2010, p. 539).
Hedonic consumption is more focused on the attributes that lie beyond the functional abilities of the product or brand (Cardoso & Pinto, 2010).
Like the definition of hedonic goods, a definition of luxury goods can also be going beyond functionality and having an emphasis on the status and image of the individual (Liu, Li, Mizerski, &
Soh, 2012). Some scholars define luxury offerings as having a high quality and an appealing appearance, which means that they can be sold at a price premium (Kauppinen-Räisänen, Björk, Lönnström, & Jauffret, 2018). These brand characteristics can be within any product, even products that are not considered luxury (Turunen, 2018). Products with these brand characteristics of high price, good quality, and aesthetic appeal are only considered luxury products if they are “(…) interpreted and reflected in a specific social context” (Turunen, 2018, p. 61). The definition of luxury is fluid and may not be the same for everyone. What one finds to be a luxury good may feel ordinary to others (Liu, Li, Mizerski, & Soh, 2012). The characteristics of a luxury product can be perceived differently depending on the product category. For example, a high price for a good in one product category can be a low price for a good within another product category (Turunen, 2018).
It is the symbolic importance of these brand characteristics that makes the product a luxury good.
Luxury goods not only satisfy a functional need but also a more psychological need (Vigneron &
Johanson, 2004). The emphasis on the image is also evident in the consumers reasoning behind buying luxury goods. Luxury can show success and status, reward oneself, and provide confidence as described by Turunen (2018) “Luxury products are seen as status symbols” (Turunen, 2018, p. 62).
The signals and symbolism embedded in the product need to be familiar to other consumers in order to achieve the desired image. The symbolic meaning of luxury goods is two-fold. There is a symbolic meaning to oneself and the symbolic meaning to others (Turunen, 2018).
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2.2.1 Values of Luxury
All luxury brands are not always considered to be equal, and some can be seen as more luxury than others (Vigneron & Johanson, 2004). Vigneron & Johanson (2004) identifies five values that a brand should contain in order to be a luxury brand. The five dimensions are perceived conspicuousness, perceived uniqueness, perceived extended self, perceived hedonism, and perceived quality.
Perceived conspicuousness is about the views, status, and prestige behind a brand. The price and wealth enhance the value of the signals that are sent to other individuals (Vigneron & Johanson, 2004). Much research within luxury has had a focus in the area of conspicuous consumption.
Conspicuous consumption is a phenomenon where consumers use the consumption of luxury goods in an attempt to enhance one’s prestige. In research, motives behind conspicuous consumption have been found in striving for superiority. Buying luxury is influenced by reference groups and social positions (Zheng, Baskin, & Peng, 2018).
Vigneron & Johanson’s (2004) second way of enhancing the luxuriousness of products is through perceived uniqueness. If a product is scarce or only a few can afford the product, the feeling of uniqueness will increase. On the other hand, if everyone has a specific product, it will not be perceived as unique (Vigneron & Johanson, 2004). Other research has shown what is perceived to be unique is also highly individual. One’s personal life situation influences what one perceives to be luxury. Examples of this can be income which can determine what for the individual is a desirable goal. Once the goal and dream are achieved, it can quickly be replaced by a new one. Dreams, goals, and wishes are dynamic and may change rapidly and as soon as one dream is reached (Turunen, 2018). Other than personal life situations the way and how often a product and a brand is consumed also influences the perception of uniqueness and luxuriousness. If a product is rarely used, it can give a meaning of uniqueness to the product when used even if it is not per se unique in itself, and it can be perceived more luxuriousness (Turunen, 2018).
Side 15 af 255 Vigneron and Johansons (2004) third dimension of luxury is in line with Belk’s (1988) theory on the extension of self. The consumption of luxury goods also plays an essential role in the build of one’s identity. Consumers can use luxury goods to enhance their self-concept or replicate different social groups by consuming similar goods. Luxury goods can be more socially visible and expensive, making them even more preferred when sending signals of success. Luxury objects can be a way to evaluate success (Vigneron & Johanson, 2004).
The consumption of luxury goods is also the consumption of hedonic goods. Vigneron and Johanson (2004) describe that subjective emotional benefits (perceived hedonism) also plays a role in luxury goods. There is a close relationship between the perceived quality and the assumption of luxury.
Perceived quality is the last dimension in Vigneron and Johanson’s theory. The higher quality can both relate to technology, engineering, design, sophistication, and craftsmanship.
All of the five dimensions are somewhat correlated, but all bring something different to the notion of luxury. Not all of the five dimensions may be prioritised the same way for the different consumers.
Some values can be more important than others for the consumers’ feeling of luxury (Vigneron &
Johanson, 2004).
2.3 Consumer Identity Project
Identity is in the Cambridge dictionary defined as “who a person is, or the qualities of a person or group that make them different from others” (Cambridge Dictionary, n.d.). The definition shows that the notion of identity is about resemblances and differences. As Jenkins (2014) also notes, identity is not just one thing. Identity is also about classifying a thing or a person and associate it with something. People are actively finding their identity and are reflective when doing so. Identity is therefore arguably a social phenomenon. Identity is not just given, but instead is a working process in which social constructs are involved (Jenkins, 2014).
Side 16 af 255 In the research era of postmodernism, there has been a focus on the notion of consumers building an identity through consumption. Identity is no longer fixed to institutions such as family and rank as it was in modernism. Instead, identity is reflected through the ever-changing unpredictable individual with switching lifestyles (Firat & Venkatesh, 1995; Elliott & Wattanasuwan, 1998;
McCracken, 1986; Cova, 1997). The consumer has at the same time become an uneconomic man.
Unlike in the past, the consumer buys an abundance of unnecessary goods (Levy, 1959). The consumer buys these goods not because they are a need to have, but because they are nice to have.
In the postmodernist era, the consumer is also continuously searching for the meaning of life (Cova, 1997).
Within the academic field of consumption, a core area is, how personal and collective identity is constructed and challenged (Arnould & Thompson, 2005). Identity is a subject that has been studied in different forms whether in Belk’s (1988) notion of the self, McCracken (1986) studying the way products express cultural meaning, Bardhi et al.’s (2012) study of possessions influence on a nomadic lifestyle, Thomsen & Haytko (1997) looking at the cultural meaning and self-identity in the fashion industry, Holt (2004) looking at the identity of both customers and iconic brands, and many others.
The collective concept behind these studies is that the marketplace offers mythic and symbolic resources. The consumers use symbolic resources in the construction of their identity. Consumers are identity seekers and goal driven in the process of finding and constructing their own identity.
This process is commonly known as the identity project (Arnould & Thompson, 2005).
2.3.1 The Extended Self
Russell W. Belk was among one of the first researchers to take a closer look at the relationship between possessions and the consumers’ identity project. Belk (1988) finds a difference between a core sense of self (the body itself, internal processes, and ideas) and an extended self (experiences, people, places, and things which a consumer feels attached to). Belk (1988) argues that people have a fragile core self that needs to be supported. A way of supporting the core self is through possessions. Possessions and brands then extend the consumers’ core self not only as a physical
Side 17 af 255 extension but also in a more symbolic manner. Today, consumers buy not only a functional product but also the symbolism that comes with that specific brand or product (Levy, 1959). Consumers’
consumption of brands and products then becomes an active process that is concerned with the creation, transformation, and maintenance of their extended self (Belk, 1988).
Notions like self, sense of self, and identity is often used as synonyms for the same phenomenon of consumers subjectively perceiving who they are. (Ahuvia, 2005). Belk (1988) only distinguish between self and non-self where other researchers distinguish between several other selves. Ahuvia (2005) believes products can belong to core self (intensely identify with self), extended self (marginally identify), and non-self (Ahuvia, 2005). The notion of a core self can be seen as somewhat a romantic view. Ahuvia describes “In this romantic view, each person has a true or authentic inner core self that is given to him, or her from an extremal source be that genetics, socialization, or God”
(Ahuvia, 2005, p. 180). The individual then has to find their true self and live an authentic life in agreement with one's inner nature. Ahuvia (2005) questions whether Belk's findings of a core self and an extended self is comprehensive enough. Instead, Ahuvia (2005) finds that individuals express a fragmented and multiple sense of self in which consumption is a means to the change between selves.
The view of the self and identity as a core inner true self is the most conventional. The notion can instead be portrayed as a life narrative which includes an individual’s current understanding of the self, past selves, and anticipated selves (Kleine, Kleine, & Allen, 1995). Possessions can be used temporally to create a link between the past and present. In other words, between one’s past, present, and future identity (Bardhi, Eckhardt, & Arnould, 2012). The consumers’ identity narrative is being formed by possessions, events, or places to derive the meaning of self. The meaning is derived when it is connected with the individual's life story (Kleine, Kleine, & Allen, 1995).
Consumption can be used as a way of transitioning throughout life (Kleine, Kleine, & Ewing, 2017).
The attachment between brand and identity fixes one to places, times, and culture (McCracken, 1986). The brand offerings influence on the consumer’s identity project is determined by the relationship between the individual and the brand. How strong the influence is on the consumer is affected by the attachment to the brand (Kleine, Kleine, & Allen, 1995). The attachment becomes
Side 18 af 255 stronger when the consumer uses the brand to express their identity, communicate the identity to others, and reach important goals in their life (Wang & John, 2019).
2.3.2 Collections
As part of the consumer’s identity and self-definition, the consumer can start a collection of certain items, which can be noted as an extension of the self (Belk, 1988). Collecting is by Belk defined as
”(…) the Process of actively, selectively, and passionately acquiring and possessing things removed from ordinary use and perceived as part of a set of non-identical objects or experiences” (Belk, 1995 as cited in Belk, 1995, p. 479). Three main traits can be found in a collection. The first being the objects collected must be in some form related. Second, the objects are selectively picked. Third, the items collected are no longer valued solely for their inherent usefulness. Instead, the items take an additional significance often referred to as sacredness (Spaid, 2018).
As society is continuously moving forward, the consumer loses more control over the world. The consumer can achieve some control through collecting. The consumers can become very attached to their collection, and see it as a part of themselves. The bond becomes especially strong as a collection takes up a lot of time and energy. A collection will contribute to the consumers’ identity project, as it can provide a sense of uniqueness. A collection can also legitimise continued purchases of a particular product or brand. The continued consumption can have negative consequences for the consumer. Collections can become so paramount that the consumer loses control of other aspects of life (Belk, 1988).
2.3.3 Cultural Meaning
McCracken (1986) describe how cultural meaning is transferred and shared from the culturally constituted world to consumer goods. The meaning is further transferred on to the individual consumer through rituals. The rituals are intended to affirm, evoke, assign, or revise the symbols and meaning. The culturally constituted world is the individual everyday experience of the world.
The world is shaped and created by the belief and assumptions within the individual’s culture. From the culturally constituted world, the consumers have derived different meanings ascribed to brands
Side 19 af 255 or products. The consumers can use consumption to signal what kind of person they wish to appear as though the meaning ascribed to goods. Cultural meaning is continuously changing as it is being influenced by what society defines as cultural meaning, the cultural meaning of product and brand’s, and the cultural meaning that the consumers allocate to it. Through the consumer’s relationship with the brand, they contribute to the creation of cultural meaning in the same way that products and brands are (McCracken, 1986).
2.3.4 Symbolic Meaning
All consumption holds symbolic meaning. The meaning can be both consciously and unconsciously known to the consumer (Elliott & Wattanasuwan, 1998; McCracken, 1986). Goods have become embedded with psychological attributes, that symbolises personality traits and social goals (Levy, 1959). The symbolic meaning can be a part of the consumers’ decision whether to buy or not as consumers use product symbolism to determine the social reality around them (Solomon, 1983).
Identity is not just developed as an inside-out, internal process. Identity is also developed through outside-in stimuli such as social influences and possessions (Kleine & Kleine, 2000). Consumers interpret symbols to understand the world and other people around them (Solomon, 1983).
The symbolic meaning is not just about the meaning between brand and consumer but is also shared between consumers interpreting the brand meaning (Elliott & Wattanasuwan, 1998). The symbolic meanings can both be on an individual and collective level. The individuals or groups who use a specific product or brand add a particular symbolic meaning to it (Bengtsson, Ostberg, & Kjeldgaard, 2005). The symbolic meaning is continuously evolving. The signal that products and brands have today may not be the same in another time or cultural context (Turunen, 2018). The symbolic meaning will transform as the individual or group changes. Alternatively, the symbolic meaning can change if the brand meaning is changed (Bengtsson, Ostberg, & Kjeldgaard, 2005).
Side 20 af 255 The identity project does not only concern the brands that are actively consumed but also the brands that have been discarded. (Hogg, Banister, & Stephenson, 2009). Anti-consumption conveys just as much about the consumers’ identity as what they consume. Anti-consumption is not only significant for the individual identity but also the collective identity (Banister & Hogg, 2001). Brands can be used to show which tribe and community the consumer belongs to (Thompson & Haytko, 1997; McCracken, 1986). Identity is a social phenomenon in which one’s identity is defined and redefined through the negotiations of social relations.
2.3.5 Multiple Selves
Consumers ascribe several different meanings to a brand. The brand can contain a wide range of cultural meanings. Cultural meaning effects the consumer and contribute to them having multiple identities (Patrick, MacInnis, & Folkes, 1995). The symbolic meaning of goods can determine which brand the consumer will choose to their multiple selves (Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982; Huber, Eisele,
& Meyer, 2018). The validation received from other consumers evaluates the success of the consumer's multiple selves. The notion and phenomenon of multiple identities have been researched within the area of consumer identity. Patrick, MacInnes & Folkes (1995) describe the idea of different possible selves and state that the following exist; the ideal self “(…) whom we wish we could be (…)”, an expected self “(…) who we think we might become (…)”, and “(…) who we hope to be or fear becoming” (Patrick, MacInnis, & Folkes, 1995, p. 270). These different selves are not the same as the actual self. The possible selves do not describe who the consumer is now. The consumer will consider different products and brands relevant to each different type of self. The possible selves are formed based on the socio-cultural context and meaning (Patrick, MacInnis, &
Folkes, 1995).
Kleine et al. (1993) propose another definition of multiple identities in the form of different social identities. Kleine et al. (1993), in contrast to Belk (1988), believes that people have many extended selves. In the article, they demonstrate that there are different schemas related to different types of social identity, identity ideals and, social roles, and the global self. Each identity schemas is the collective of all knowledge related to the identity that comes from when the identity is expressed.
Side 21 af 255 Social roles are roles people ascribe to themselves and are the foundation of their social identities.
The social identities form the global self which is the overall sense of self. All identities are having an aspect of the real and ideal level, meaning the way a person is (real) and the way a person likes to be (ideal). Social roles are the guide to how someone should enact a particular identity. As the social roles are built on norms and stereotypes, the disparity between an identity and a social role can course anxiety. That does not mean that an ideal identity and social roles are the same as a person may not want to enact a role as they are supposed to. Reasons for this can be values, abilities, or a desire to be unique. Different types of brands and products represent identities and objects that the individual perceives to be useful for enacting an identity (Kleine, Kleine, & Kernan, 1993).
Another area within the research of multiple selves is that of the undesired self. This stream of research suggests that people avoid objects that add unfavourable or undesired meaning to their self-concepts. The psychological construct of the undesired self is especially relevant when looking at anti-consumption (Ogilvie, 1987). Consumers specifically avoid brands that are associated with a negative reference group, inauthentic or are linked to a loss of individuality (Lee, Motion, & Conroy, 2009).
Lee, Motion & Conroy (2009) determine three reasons for brand avoidance in their research:
Experiential, identity and moral. A consumer may avoid a brand, as the consumer has experience with the brand not living up to expectations. A consumer may also avoid a brand as the image is possibly not aligned with the consumer’s identity. Brand avoidance is a way for the consumer to protect their identity from brands that are associated with the undesired self. Lastly, the consumer may avoid a brand, as the brand does not live up to the consumer’s ideological beliefs (Lee, Motion,
& Conroy, 2009). The consumer may also determine that a brand they already own is no longer in line with their intended identity. Possessions that have a link to people that are important to the consumer are hard to discard. Although the possession is “not-me” anymore, the affiliative association can make it more difficult to dispose of the object. (Kleine, Kleine, & Allen, 1995).
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2.3.6 Tribes
Social relations influence the behaviour of the individual consumer, making consumption a collective phenomenon. The notion of collective consumption has been labelled and introduced in many different forms. From Muñiz and O’Guinn’s (2001) brand communities that share rituals and ways of thinking, Schouten and McAlexander’s (1995) subculture of consumption who shares temporary traditions and commitments, to Cova and Cova (2002) consumer tribes that consists of fluid groups who share experiences based on a product.
Within the research of collective consumption, consumers are seen as a tribal member instead of an individual (Cova, 1997). Consumers consume in order to build and maintain relationships with others, especially the ones they desire to affiliate with (Sandkc & Ger, 2012). Not only are tribes an essential subject in consumption it also plays a vital role in the consumer identity project. A consumer’s identity project is not only about the individual but also the groups that the consumer belongs to (Maffesoli, 1996). Tribes are not understood in a traditional manner as being connected through established parameters like religion, family, and village. In the modern perspective of tribes, consumption is a means to gain meaningful social relationships, and the social aspects are more meaningful than the products itself. Today, an individual belongs to many different tribes at the same time without being exclusive (Cova, 1997).
Tribes are different from the term segments. The notions differ in the way they are divided into groups of consumers. Segments are divided by consumer sharing the same characteristics where tribes share passion and emotions. The shared passion and emotions mean that tribes are not just consumers but also a group that can take collective action. Segments are simply consumers that make individual decisions (Cova & Cova, 2002).
The similarities between consumer groups are more significant than their differences. One crucial difference is the strength of the relationship between group members, types of interaction, and the object of shared experience (Cova & Dalli, 2018). Consumer tribes are natural occurring groups where the members identify with one another based on shared consumption habits. They share experiences and emotions with the consumer tribes that they do not share with non-members (Cova
& Cova, 2002). A subculture of consumption is a group of individuals that are sharing a culture that
Side 23 af 255 strays from the dominant culture in society. They construct a social reality outside of the dominant culture (Schouten & McAlexander, 1995). Brand communities are co-consuming groups that share a common interest in a specific brand. The brand community has its own myths, rituals, and hierarchy (Muñiz & O'Guinn, 2001).
As formulated by Sandkc and Ger “We consume things as much for other people as for ourselves”
(Sandkc & Ger, 2012, p. 115). The consumer both have a wish to be different and unique while also becoming distinctive to the tribes, that the consumer belongs to (Turunen, 2018). Fitting in can be just as important as being different and individual (Sandkc & Ger, 2012).
2.3.7 Uniqueness
Even though the consumers belong to different tribes in their consumption, there can also be a need for consumers to be unique. Consumers both seek uniqueness and uphold a personal identity that differs from others (autonomy-seeking). They also maintain interpersonal connections that are part of forming the self, which is known as affiliation seeking (Kleine, Kleine, & Allen, 1995). Consumption is a valued way of showing uniqueness, as it is without risk of severe social penalties as can be seen with lifestyle choices and political correctness. Some consumers have a pressing need for uniqueness. Uniqueness can be defined as “An individual’s pursuit of differentness relative to others that is achieved through the acquisition, utilization, and disposition of consumer goods for the purpose of developing and enhancing one’s personal and social identity” (Tian, Bearden, & Hunter, 2001, p. 50).
Tian et al. (2001) further concluded that there are three ways in which consumers can seek uniqueness. One is to avoid similarities if a product for examples has become mainstream, as Thompson and Haytko (1997) notes. A second is to be creative with everyday goods and alter them in a way that makes them more unique. Consumers can put their personal modification to the brand generated meaning. One example of this is Bengtsson, Ostberg & Kjeldgaard’s (2005) research on tattooing where brands logos are modified into representing the consumer’s identity. The relationship to the brand shows what Fournier (1998) describes as love and passion. The brand becomes incorporated into the consumer’s identity project (Bengtsson, Ostberg, & Kjeldgaard,
Side 24 af 255 2005). A third is to buy goods that are unpopular and may not achieve social approval, which means that few consumers are willing to imitate it (Tian, Bearden, & Hunter, 2001; Bengtsson, Ostberg, &
Kjeldgaard, 2005). As Michael (2015) states, the consumer only has the option of the products and brands offered. It is not possible to be a completely unique self, but this may not matter since meaning is added to product and brands that can influence the feeling of uniqueness (Michael, 2015).
Turunen (2018) states that uniqueness is culturally constructed. Culture can influence what is interpreted as unique and what elements are valued. Uniqueness is influenced by consumer culture but also by culture in general. The value of a unique product or brand to not necessarily come from their unique characteristic. Instead, it comes from the values and meanings of uniqueness ascribed by the consumers. Common and easily available products can gain a perception of being unique by the consumer's consumption patterns and practices. Consumers ascribe cultural meanings to products in order for them to have a unique characteristic. It is evident in the use of clothing where people do not wear everyday clothes for special events or vice versa. If the consumers contradict the social norms, then the illusion of uniqueness would be shattered (Turunen, 2018).
The need for uniqueness differs in its intensity. For some, it is a need to be one-of-a-kind where it for others is enough to be part of a group that is unique to the mass society (Turunen, 2018). The phenomenon of uniqueness can also be a source of tension. In their daily life consumers are also looking for fitting in with familiar groups. Consumers wish to be socially accepted or be considered normal by the collectives or tribes they belong to (Sandkc & Ger, 2012).
2.3.8 Stigma
Stigma is a socially constructed phenomenon. Stigma occurs when people interact in groups and evaluate differences in a negative and stereotypical manner. Goffman defines stigma as “an attribute that is deeply discrediting”, and when a person becomes barer of stigma, one has reduced the individual from a usual person to a tainted person (Goffman, 1990, p. 3). Individuals can experience stigmatisation because of their consumption pattern. For some consumers, examples of this can be tattoos, dressing to flashily and wearing too much make-up. Stigma is not fixed by time
Side 25 af 255 and place, but can instead change over time. The evolvement in the concept of stigma is evident in the example of jeans that once was stigmatised as biker jeans and tattoos of inmates which today, for the most part, is no longer the case (Sandkc & Ger, 2012).
Goffman (1990) finds that there are three different kinds of stigma. One, being physical deformations like scars. Second, character blemish, like mental illness. Lastly, tribal traits, ethnic or religious associations (Goffman, 1990). In recent time, research within the phenomenon of stigma has moved the focus of the individual to the social-cultural process behind the stigma. Stigma is no longer just seen as an interpersonal attribute but also a social process. Stigmatisation not only has consequences for the individual. It also influences the creation and maintenance of social hierarchies and boundaries between “them and us”. Sources of stigma in consumption can come from the age group, race, ethnicity, religion, social class, and sexual orientation that can make consumers targets of stigmatisation (Sandkc & Ger, 2012).
Part of stigma is the negotiation between sameness and difference. In other words, the me-others or us-them tension and comparisons. This negotiation is essential for the individual identity but also the collective identity (Sandkc & Ger, 2012).
2.4 Authenticity
Authenticity is in the dictionary defined as “the quality of being real or true” (Cambridge Dictionary, n.d.). In a brand context Napoli et al. define authenticity as “(…) a subjective evaluation of genuineness ascribed to a brand by consumers” (Napoli, Dickinson-Delaporte, & Beverland, 2016, p.
1091).
The postmodern phenomenons like globalisation, deterritorialisation, and hyperreality are the cause of a loss of tradition. It has in literature been described as a cause of search for authenticity (Arnould & Price, 2000). Another cause for the search of authenticity is a response to the standardisation of products and brands in the market place (Beverland & Farrelly, 2010).
Authenticity is socially constructed. Authenticity is not an attribute inherited in a brand but is subjective and changeable (Napoli, Dickinson-Delaporte, & Beverland, 2016; Beverland & Farrelly, 2010).
Side 26 af 255 The notion of authenticity can both be observed from a consumer-derived value and a brand- derived value perspective. Researchers exploring authenticity from a brand-derived value perspective have been looking at how positive brand authenticity can create value. The value can be created through brand trust, credibility, quality perceptions and many other characteristics.
Authenticity from a consumer-derived value perspective focuses more on the self-authentication of the consumer and the identity project. Self-authentication originates from a brand fulfilling a wish of authenticity for the consumer. Perceived authenticity in products and brands can drive the consumers self-authentication (Napoli, Dickinson-Delaporte, & Beverland, 2016).
2.4.1 Self-Authentication
From an individual perspective, authenticity is described as a “ (…) true self, our individual existence, not as we might present it to others, but as it 'really is', apart from any roles we play” (Handler, 1986, p. 3). Authenticity can be seen as a highly personalised value that is reflected by one’s idealised self.
Within branding literature, the phenomenon is known as self-authentication (Beverland & Farrelly, 2010). Some researchers describe being authentic to the self as getting closer to the self. It is not an inheritance characteristic of an individual but something that is ascribed to people by understanding meanings. Being and getting closer to oneself is an inner desire and motivator for consumers (Michael, 2015). Consumers use the marketplace and its offerings to achieve and maintain a sense of true self (Napoli, Dickinson-Delaporte, & Beverland, 2016).
Products and brands can in the sense of authenticity help express an ideal self and become part of one’s self-narrative through the engagement with the products. People actively pursue authenticity to find meaning and achieve their personal goals. Through their personal goals, consumers want to consume brands and products that reinforce their desired identity (Beverland & Farrelly, 2010). The notion of authenticity is closely related to the notion of identity as Napoli et al. define self- authentication as “(…) the extent to which a brand represents or aids in a consumer’s self-identity project and the presentation of their ‘true self’ to themselves and others” (Napoli, Dickinson- Delaporte, & Beverland, 2016, p. 1209).
Side 27 af 255 Hopper et al. (2015) define two types of authenticity: object-based authenticity and existential authenticity. Object authenticity refers to the judgement that an object is what it claims to be, and therefore genuine. Existential authenticity is part of a human’s characteristic and is about becoming true to one’s self and being one’s own. Essentially, authenticity is in line with the notion of consumers self-authentication (Hopper, Costley, & Friend, 2015). Existential authenticity is a continuous and dynamic process. Existential authenticity can also be referred to as hot authentications modes. Hot authentication modes are described to be sensations of the real self, involving feelings. Object-based authenticity is described as cool authentication modes that rely on knowledge. Hopper et al. (2015) find that consumers are not motivated to search for authentic brands and experiences. Consumers are instead motivated to find themselves and thereby their existential authenticity.
Authenticity is also a balance between a desire for the romantic and the modern. The desire for the romantic is a longing for the pre-industrial past. The romantic authenticity is inherited in the real, traditional, and emotional past. The modern notion of authenticity is a break with the past and a desire for the innovative and experimental (Michael, 2015).
Consumers today are searching for ways in which they can obtain self-authentication but also achieve a sense of community. According to Arnould and Price (2000), consumers use two consumption techniques for this purpose: authenticating acts and authoritative performances.
Authenticating acts are related to consumers’ individual identity. Arnould and Price determine that authenticating acts are “(…) self-referential behaviours actors feel, reveal or produce the “true” self”
(Arnould & Price, 2000, p. 140). The consumers can achieve self-authentication by modifying the products or brands they buy, or by altering the consumption experience. In these instances, the “(…) consumption is transformed into production” (Arnould & Price, 2000, p. 149). The consumers can also achieve self-authentication by altering and ascribing personalised meanings and values to the product. The product thereby becomes linked to the consumer’s self-narrative (Arnould & Price, 2000).
Side 28 af 255 Authoritative performances are related to the consumers’ collective identity. Arnould and Price determine that authoritative performances are “(…) collective displays aimed at inventing or refashioning cultural traditions” (Arnould & Price, 2000, p. 140). Authoritative performances can create a sense of integration, membership, security, and community through shared traditions and connections. Authoritative performances thereby contribute to the consumer’s sense of collective identity (Arnould & Price, 2000).
It can be difficult for the consumer to be part of a collective identity through authoritative acts if they also wish to achieve a unique, differentiated self through authenticating acts (Arnould & Price, 2000). It can be essential for consumers to find themselves and their personal style. A feeling of uniqueness and individuality can be achieved through the resistance towards a mainstream product or brand. (Napoli, Dickinson-Delaporte, & Beverland, 2016). Achieving authenticity is also about changing and rejecting products and brands. The consumers can put their creative touch upon a mass-produced product. By personalising the product, the consumer achieves self-authentication and become unique by being their true self (Arnould & Price, 2000).
2.5 Status and the Trickle-Down Theory
The trickle-down theory examines the movement of fashion in a social context. It is based upon the two principles that “As long as there is imitation, the theory holds, there will be differentiation. As long as there is differentiation, there will be imitation” (McCracken, 1988, p. 94). The movement of fashion is further based upon the hierarchical nature of social relations and interactions. The highest-ranking social group differentiate themselves from others, as they have no higher-ranking group to imitate. Making the highest-ranking social group superordinate (McCracken, 1988). These consumers wish to appear unique and achieve self-authentication through differentiation. In order to be differentiated, one has to have the knowledge and master the meanings that are ascribed and signalled to others. As Michael (2015) describe “Mixing styles and avoiding one-dimensionality requires knowledge of styles; one has to master the cultural signs and symbols in order to skilfully play with them and to make them one’s own” (Michael, 2015, p. 178).
Side 29 af 255 The lowest-ranking social group imitate the superordinate groups as there are no lower group to differentiate themselves from. It makes the lowest-ranking social group the subordinate.
Somewhere in between these two social groups are the intermediate group. The intermediate groups can choose to differentiate, imitate or do both. They are both superordinate to the lowest- ranking and subordinate to the highest ranking (McCracken, 1988).
As a response to lower-classes threating one’s identity, individuals have different coping strategies (Wang & John, 2019). A way of coping is the abandonment of the product or brand. A second way is for consumers to compare themselves favourably to inferior groups. Consumers are thereby elevating their identity. An approach to elevating oneself is by buying or upgrading to a more exclusive product or brand. By elevating oneself, it enables people to feel superior to others. The feeling of superiority is closely related to people seeking higher status. Wang and John also find that people with a strong attachment to a brand is more likely to upgrade a product instead of abandoning it. The emotional attachment makes it more difficult to separate from the brand (Wang
& John, 2019).
Social prestige and status are crucial in regards to the consumption of luxury goods. Within social status, two main fields exist; status-seeking and status consumption. Status-seeking relates to owning, purchasing and displaying goods in order to gain superior status (Turunen, 2018). Wang and John (2019) describe which characteristics in product and brands, consumers choose when seeking a higher status. In order to achieve higher status the consumers generally seek “(…) to purchase exclusive products that are limited in supply, difficult to obtain, and/or more expensive to purchase”
(Wang & John, 2019, p. 145).
Status consumption is owning status-burdened goods, which may or may not be on display. The most significant difference between the two is that status consumption is not related to pursuing a higher position. In order for the status-seekers to gain status, they have to carefully choose which brands they use to symbolise their social status. There has to be a mutual understanding of the specific brand's symbolism and the individuals social ranking. The goods have to be acknowledged as a giving status to the consumer. Luxury goods give status by being differentiated because not
Side 30 af 255 everyone can have it. Differentiation and belonging are also seen as the key drivers of luxury, especially in fashion (Turunen, 2018).
McCracken (1988) concludes that the theory of trickle-down should be updated to more modern society. In modern society, the groups are not only be determined by hierarchical social status but also by social status in the form of gender, age and ethnicity. McCracken (1988) criticises the trickle- down theory for having an error in the metaphor. The movement is not experienced downward but rather upward. The subordinate social groups are chasing the upper-class status while the highest- ranking is hastily moving on to the next fashion to preserve their status. The consumers in the highest-ranking social group have the same motivations to differentiate themselves from other social groups. They constitute a form of tribe that do not wish to be associated with subordinate groups as they are not part of this tribe. The lowest-ranking social group constitute a tribe that aspire to be in a higher-ranking social group than what they are (McCracken, 1988).
As there are many consumers today who wish to become imitators, many larger luxury brands have made diffusion brands. Diffusion brands give consumers, who might not otherwise be able to buy these brands, “(…) a taste of luxury” (Turunen, 2018, p. 66). This phenomenon has been noted as the democratisation of luxury. The need for belonging and gaining status by imitation can be seen as a critical factor for driving democratisation. Diffusion brands are different from the parent brands in relation to their price and distribution channels. Even though these diffusion brands are different the products and the exclusive brands still become available to a larger group of consumers. The concept of luxury can, as a result, become threatened, as it contradicts the traditional luxury in the sense that the scarcity and social stratification is now gone. The feeling of exclusiveness disappears as the good merely becomes an everyday necessity. The luxury brand might lose its luxuriousness (Turunen, 2018).
Side 31 af 255 Figure 2: Overview of Literature
Source: Own creation (2019) based on the literature reviewed in this chapter
Past Present Future
Status Uniqueness
Ideal Self What do
othersthink?
Not me anymore
Mainstream
I am true to who I am!
I expect myself to be…
Stigma Feared Self
Dreams and goals
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3 Methodology
3.1 Philosophy of Science
It is essential that researchers are aware of the perspective that they take when conducting a study.
The scientific perspective can influence the chosen method and research strategy. It shows the relationship between the knowledge created and the process in which the knowledge is developed (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009). This study examines consumer behaviour. It examines the cultural meanings that are attached to brand and products and are related to consumers and their consumption. Consumer behaviour is an academic field that is very subjective as it is based upon the feelings and opinions of the consumers’. This study’s scientific foundation will be explained in this chapter.
3.1.1 Social Constructivism
The scientific foundation and ontology of this study is social constructivism (Egholm, 2014). The study focuses on how social phenomena such as the consumer’s identity project and brands and products’ symbolic values are created and perceived. The constructivist approach means that “(…) statements and concepts about the world are legitimised by social processes and therefore created collectively” (Egholm, 2014, p. 141). With an ontological foundation of constructivism, a phenomenon is studied in a certain context. It is the study of how the phenomenon arises and the impact the phenomenon has on its surroundings (Egholm, 2014). In this study, it is the phenomenon of the female consumers’ identity project and their attitude towards luxury goods that are examined. The phenomenon is created from the perception and actions of consumers, meaning that it is subjective. This study aims to understand the subjective meanings behind the consumer's actions (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009).
The interaction between consumers and between brands and consumers creates meaning. The meaning and perception of brands and products may be different from consumer to consumer. “(…) it is social groups that create realities collectively (…)” (Egholm, 2014, p. 141).
Side 33 af 255 The epistemology of social constructivism defines that knowledge is changeable. Knowledge is changeable because it is influenced by time and place (Egholm, 2014). The study examines how cultural meaning is ascribed to the phenomena of female consumers’ identity project as it is today.
The cultural and subjective meaning of the consumers can change over time as society, and the female consumers evolve. What is considered normal or abnormal today will change as cultural meanings are transformed. The epistemology of this study is interpretivism (Saunders, Lewis, &
Thornhill, 2009). The consumers interpret the social roles of themselves and others concerning the meaning that they ascribe. The consumers are continuously interpreting the social world around them. They interpret the actions of others in order to adjust their personal meanings (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009).
3.1.2 Inductive Research
The purpose of an inductive research strategy is to draw generalizable implications out of the data collected. Observations are used to build a theoretical proposal rather than to build theory. The inductive research method still contains some deduction, as the two cannot be separated entirely (Bryman & Bell, 2011).
This study conducts inductive research, as the research field has been approached through an iterative process. The process involves going back and forth between the data collected and the theory applied. It uses the data collected to obtain a theoretical understanding of the subject investigated (Bryman & Bell, 2011). This study is not entirely inductive as existing literature within the research field has been reviewed to inspire this research project. The literature reviews were used as an inspiration for choosing the research design, the subsequent analysis of the collected data, and the understanding of the subjects discovered in the data analysis.
Side 34 af 255 This study has taken the context of female consumers’ identity project and their attitude towards and relationship with luxury products and brands. Because of the study’s inductive approach, a small sample for the data collection is preferable in order to bring an understanding of the context (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009). No similar studies on this specific subject and context have been uncovered. This study can provide a more comprehensive understanding of this context and provides data that can further expand the academic field of consumer behaviour.
3.2 Research design
The research design is a general plan of how the research question will be answered. The research design has been chosen based on the research question and objectives with the philosophic foundation also taken into account (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009). The overall research strategy in this study consists of qualitative research. The qualitative method primarily describes an interpretive view of the world rather than the quantitative view of natural science (Bryman & Bell, 2011). Qualitative research can provide a deeper understanding of the phenomenon of people ascribing meaning to objects and how it is constructed. As the scientific approach to this study is social constructivism, qualitative research offers the opportunity of examining the social constructs of society.
The research design consists of two different qualitative methods: a focus group and in-depth interviews. The strength of the focus group is the elaboration in responses of the participants as a result of the interactions between them. The subjects discussed in the focus group will then be further elaborated in the individual interviews. The two qualitative methods will give this study an interpretation of the world that the participants are operating in and how meaning is ascribed and constructed.
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3.2.1 Focus Group
A focus group enabled an opportunity to observe the discussion of female consumers’ consumption behaviour. One of the advantages of a focus group is that the respondents’ view on the different topics can be further explored by the other participants’ responses and challenges to each other’s point of view (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009). The arguments made by the respondents in their discussion makes for more realistic accounts of the respondents’ opinions. The discussion in a focus group can also open up for aspects that the other participants might not otherwise have thought of (Bryman & Bell, 2011).
The focus group provides a unique opportunity to examine how the respondents understand the social phenomenon and ascribe symbolic meaning to goods and the world around them. It provides a more naturalistic perspective as it is closer to how the consumers construct symbolic meaning in their everyday life (Bryman & Bell, 2011).
There are also some limitations to the use of focus groups as a research method. One is that the moderators have less control over the interview as multiple people are involved. Another limitation is that group effects can influence the focus group. Some participants can be very dominant while others can be quieter (Bryman & Bell, 2011).
The purpose of the focus group, conducted in this study, was to do preliminary research that would highlight what main themes could be relevant and important in regards to the female consumers’
identity project. These central themes would later be used for constructing an interview guide for the in-depth interviews.
3.2.2 In-depth Interviews
One of the tools used in this research design was in-depth interviews. For the in-depth interviews, a semi-structured interview approach was chosen. This approach entails “(…) a list of questions on fairly specific topics to be covered, (…), but the interview has a great deal of leeway in how to reply”
(Bryman & Bell, 2011, p. 467). This provided room for adapting to the interviewee's responses and the themes, that they deemed relevant about the questions. An interview guide containing specific
