Experimental design
The experimental design draws upon olfaction, emotion and associative learning theory and its effect on motivated behaviour by Rachel Herz (2004). This approach is adopted as we are studying the prospect of naming and creating specific associations for unknown odours. This is tested via associative learning, the process by which one event or item comes to be linked to another through experience, which is critically involved in human cognition and behaviour (Rachel Hertz 2004). It has also been proposed that associative learning principles explain human perceptual responses to odours (Engen, 1991; Herz, 2001). Specifically, it is proposed that odour hedonic perception e.g., liking/pleasantness is derived from a learned association with the emotional context in which that odorant was first encountered. That is, one would dislike the smell of roses if it were first encountered in an unpleasant setting (e.g., a funeral).
The experiment is designed to study if odours can be cued to brands via associative learning based on theory concerning how odour hedonic perception is derived from a learned association.
This inherent hedonic property of olfactory stimuli, together with the poor accessibility to semantic processing and language, makes odour particularly suitable for studies on classical and evaluative conditioning (Gesualdo M. Zucco 2009)
Prior research has shown that odours that are liked or disliked have a congruent impact on mood and cognition. Pleasant fragrances used in a “real life setting” were shown to improve mood and even alleviated some of the symptoms associated with (Rachel Hertz 2008)
Several studies have also shown that pleasant and unpleasant odours elicit physiological changes (heart-rate, GSR, eye-blink) that are consistent with positive and negative emotional states (Rachel Hertz 2008)
Note that in these laboratory studies the physiological and subjective mood changes observed to odours only occurred in individuals who experienced the odours as
“pleasant” or “unpleasant,” respectively.
Positive mood has generally been shown to lead to increases in productivity, creativity and the tendency to help others (Gesualdo M. Zucco 2009). Negative mood has also shown to influence cognition and behaviour though less consistently and predictably than positive effects. The discrepancies between positive and negative effect on behaviour are beyond the scope of this study. Notably, in the few studies reported, ambient odours have been found to elicit mood effects on cognition and behaviour. We wish to find the truths about how- and where odours can or could be most effective. Therefore we are studying the neurobiological connection between olfactory and branding and how to conduct sensory branding in form of olfaction.
Hypotheses
The hypotheses are formulated, based on our research question: Odour cues enhances brand recognition and on the prior literature findings, assuming that odour have an effect on branding and interfere with consumers’ mood and buying behaviour and further, odour is one of the strongest senses and easiest manipulated.
Important to clarify before testing if odour cues enhances brand recognition, is how and when, we see there is an effect in recognition and how we evaluate it.
Therefore in discussing, when brand recognition is measure to be high, clear established variables must be defined before measuring when odour cued brand recognition is calculated to be significant.
Therefore the following measurable variables are established:
In odour-cued recognition we estimate that a result of 100% chance for recognition via an odour cue is the most positive result, which shows 100% recognition.
Hereafter a result of 50% chance for recognition is average. Everything above 50%
suggest odour cued brand recognition can be conditioned and therefore can be used to enhance brand recognition. Everything below 50% suggests a low effect and therefore questions if odour cues can be conditioned in enhancing brand recognition.
Hypotheses are divided between four hypotheses H1, H2, H3, H4
H0: Odours create no significant emotional reaction in pupil dilation H1: Odorants create emotional reaction in pupil dilation.
H0: A stronger emotional reaction has no significant in generating a superior recognition
H2: A stronger emotional reaction generates superior recognition
H0: Specific odorant and brands matches has no significance in cued brand recognition
H3: Specific odorant and brands matches are significant in odour cued brand recognition.
H4: A link between an unknown odour and a brand can be forge via controlled associative learning.
Pilot testing
Early in the process of conducing an experiment underling or dismissing our hypotheses, we tested different ways of testing odours.
To test the feasibility, equipment and methods we sat up a pilot study, which was a small-scale rehearsal of our larger research design. In our pilot study, we tested different techniques in a smaller scale version of the experiment we had in mind.
First we bought seven different natural aromatic oil fragrances after our own liking.
All fragrances were pure fragrances like lemon, grape, pine oil and Orange Blossom.
In the first pilot scent test, with the purpose of testing the liking of the fragrances, we used plastic cups with a drop of oil on a cotton patch.
We asked different participants to smell the fragrance and tell us their associations toward the fragrance.
The test showed a different result than expected. All participants in the test had negative associations and disliked the fragrances - even after being told the label of the fragrance. Thus, most participants got surprised when the names of the fragrance were revealed. The labelling and the scent did not match, according to the participants.
This result made us change the plastic cups with fragrance paper sticks from a perfumery infused with the same oils from the first test.
In the second pilot scent test the answers were now increasingly positive. However, the fragrances still had a different scent when in bottle form compared to the paper stick form. The answers were still centred on negative words though more positive terms of formulation were used.
Furthermore we found great variation in the level of like and dislike when it came to male and female participants.
According to previous literature (p. 77), men and women have different smell ability.
This has been confirmed many times through several methods and in different cultures around the world. In general, women detect odours at a lower concentration level and are therefore better at identifying them by name. Several studies have shown that there is a small gender difference in the nose. The brain structures that are related to odour perception vary in size and cellular architecture between men and women. Therefore in the third pilot test, only females were invited to participate in the fragrance test.
Another variable we did not evaluate when first purchasing the oils, was the fact that all fragrances were fragrances that were well know like lemon, pine tree etc. The fact that all the fragrances were commonly used and therefore - in theory - already had a hedonic response connected to it, made us find new fragrances.
So we contacted professionals in the aromatic oil and fragrance industry. We contacted Ambient idea (p. 67) to get advice on fragrances and their durability, where after we changed all the aromatic oils with composed fragrances made by a perfumer.
After several fragrancetestings, we decided on 4 new fragrances/oils. Following fragrances were chosen: Fress Grass; a fresh an highly liked scent according to Ambient Idea, Ruby a fashionable scent, Wood a scent highly preferred by Scandinavians and Fig a scent popular for lingerie or female retails.
With the right fragrances we started planning the research design and the set up for the pilot memory test.
The research and test is built on a previous study made by Rachel Herz, since her associative learning model for odours is very suitable for our hypothesis testing.
Pilot odour memory test set up
The first test set up was divided in four small sessions. First session is an odour association test, where the participants in own words tell the associations they feel towards the odour. The second test is a rating test in front of an eye-tracker. The third test is an associative learning test where brand, abstract pictures and odours are present in series on the same computer screen with an eye-tracker. The Fourth session is a brand recognition test with help from odours presented with matching pictures from session 3.
In the first pilot test’s session one set up each participant was presented four different odours and afterwards asked to mention which associations came to mind when presented with the scent. Here we experienced that giving the right instructions to the participants was very important. Giving the participants clues in words, like asking for event or person association, made participants answer only to associations linked to the given keyword.
In set up for session two and three, we discussed the different variables we wanted to test concerning odour memory. By testing odour memory via brand logos and paintings we first of all wanted to test if it is possible to connect the odours with brands/ paintings via associative learning, but also if specific odours are better matched with specific brands. The concept of matching odour and brand by personal
traits e.g. via a brand mood board Fx. if a male luxury brand may fit better with a more heavy wooden scent than e.g. a light floral scent.
Therefore in session three, we decided to change the brand and odour match every test day in order to test if the right match between brand and odour actually had an influence on memory.
We decided that the fourth session, the brand and odour recognition test, should be held 30 minutes after session one, two and three. In our first test design, we wanted participants to come back some days after the first sessions to test the long-term memory and recognition of odour and brands. We decided not to continue with that specific set up, since we agreed on the possibility of participants not to showing up for the last test would result ending up without any usable results.
So after 30 minutes of waiting, where the participants were served coffee, tea and reading stuff to clear their minds and noses, we conducted the last - and fourth session.
In session four, the brand and odour recognition test, we decided to present all four brands at the same time mixed with four abstract paintings from session three. We decided to use abstract pictures as distracters, like in a real retail environment where brands and surroundings are mixed. By presenting all four brands at the same time, we made it more difficult for the participants to choose a brand, whereas presenting one brand and four abstract paintings for each odour would have made the choice more obvious.
Set up
The experiment took place at the facilities of the Decision Neuroscience Research Group at Copenhagen Business School SenseLab.
The experiments were carried out over the time horizon of 45 minutes per person.
Starting with 10 to 15 minutes of testing session 1) to 3) where after a 30 minutes rest session 4) was conducted.
In the 30 minutes rest time participants were offered coffee or tea in a waiting area to clear their nostrils. Also reading stuff like fashion magazines and newspapers were made available to remove focus from the experiment.
After the 30 minutes of wait participants were called back for the last test session 4) the recognition test. This test lasted only a few minutes per participant.
Sample population
56 women ranging from 19 – 37 years old with normal or corrected to normal vision through glasses or contact lenses were tested. The nationality of participants was not emphasized in this study, even though it could have been an interesting factor. It is estimated that all participants are living in Copenhagen or nearby.
Participants were found through CBS and personal networks. Invitations to the experiment were posted on social medias such as facebook. In practice, most participants were found on the hallways at CBS.
Generally, convenience samples have a high possibility to bias results, since some participants may be more eager to volunteer than others. It can be argued that the sample population is too monogenic and not is related to the general population.
Instructions
The level of information provided to the participants was very limited prior to the experiment. The limited information refers to Blind Procedures (Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill, 2009), which is evident in eliminating biases produced by the expectations of the research participants. Accordingly, the participants were unaware of their obligation in the research prior to the experiment. The instructions for the experiment consisted of an identical introductory script, both verbal and written, which was carefully delivered with the same tone of voice.
Testing procedure
Based on a positivistic approach to employ the highly structured methodology, the created procedural guideline was followed (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009).
First of all, the participant was invited to sit down in front of the computer and was introduced to the procedure of the experiment.
Afterwards each participant was presented with four different fragrances each at the time, and afterwards they were requested to judge the pleasantness and familiarity of the four odorants and to try to identify and provide a verbal description of each of them.
Thereafter, eye calibration was done and session two started. In session two participants were presented with the same scents in the same arrangement as in session one. Hereafter they were told to range the fragrances from a scale from -5 (dislike very much) to 5 (like very much).
Afterwards eye calibration was done again, and session three was run. Here participants were presented same scents in same arrangement as in session 1) and 2) while presented four abstract paintings and one brand logo arranged in a random order changing from scent to scent. In total 16 abstract paintings were presented and four brand logos.
The last procedure was the recognition test, where the participants were presented nine pictures, which they where asked to connect to the four presented scents.
Groups
According to control and test the different effects of the fragrances and to clarify or falsified if some scents are better suited to some brands and if some fragrances are better at enhancing memory. The 56 participants were divided into four different groups consisting of 14 participants in each group. (n = 14)
In assigning the participants randomly in different groups, we try to control the possible effect of an alternative explanation to the planned intervention (manipulation) and eliminate threats to internal validity.
The groups were divided in the way that all groups were presented the same fragrances in the same order but matched with different abstract paintings and brand logos.
Figure 5.1 Control groups matched in different fragrances and brands model Critique of experiment set-‐up
It can be argued whether the four different groups can be categorised as control groups. Instead they could be described as four different groups with four unknown odorants mixed with different brand logos and paintings. Another set up could have been favoured. An alternative set up could have been conducted in the way that, two groups presented unknown fragrances to test the associative learning theory and in two other control groups presented well-known fragrances to clarify if only novice fragrances can be used in associative learning and in branding vice.
Eye-tracker
Eye-tracking is a technique employed to measure the physiological responses to the stimulitracked through the visual system. The method utilizes eye tracking data in a way that makes it possible to measure the immediate unconscious and uncontrollable emotional responses before they are cognitively perceived, interpreted, and biased by our mind. (Joss Fong, 2012)
The eye-tracking device detects arousal immediately and can analyze exactly what participants were looking at by first glance. The gaze tracking unit makes sure that the eye calibration is successful in order to obtain valid and useful data for testing.
The purpose of this test was not only to see when the pupil dilates, but also to measure how participants reacted emotionally and cognitively when they were presented with brand logos and abstract paintings while smelling different odorants. It has for more than a century been well known that our pupils respond to more than changes in light. Pupils reveal our mental and emotional commotion within. In fact, pupil dilation correlates with arousal so consistently that researchers use pupil size, or pupillometry to investigate a wide range of psychological phenomena. (Joss Fong, 2102)23 Further cognitive and emotional events can also dictate pupil constriction and expansion, through such events occur on a smaller scale than light reflex, causing changes generally less than half a millimeter. Thus, the smaller scale it is enough for measuring. By recording participants eyes with infrared cameras and controlling for other factors that might affect pupil size, like brightness, colour, odour etc. it is possible using pupil movement as a proxy for other processes, like mental strain.
This is possible because, while the eye is exposed to specific visual stimuli e.g.
different odorants, the pupil dilates in response to the autonomic nervous activity.
Pupil size may show the instant emotional reaction, which is a great indicator of the emotional hedonic valence (Rupp & Wallen, 2007; Bradley et al., 2008). “Arousal is the basis of emotions, motivation, informational processing and behavioural reactions” (Groeppel-Klein, 2005, p. 428). The larger the pupils are the more emotionally aroused the person looking at the stimuli is, regardless of the stimuli being pleasant or unpleasant. However, pupil dilation may be as well affected by other factors, such as light intensity of the image, cognitive load of the information or tonic state (Bradley et al., 2008).
Importantly, when measuring pupil reaction emotional stimuli tends to draw the attention and detect change faster than neutral ones. This means that the stronger the emotional inducement is, the less time is spent on decoding information.
Odour test with Eye-‐tracker
In the second and third session of the odorant test we conducted an eye-tracker test with the main purpose of measuring emotional stimuli toward the different odorant.
The eye-tracking test is used in combination with session four to see if emotional reaction toward some odorants emphasized the ability of recognition.
23 http://www.thescientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/33563/title/The-Meaning-of-Pupil-Dilation/)
The attention towards each product was thus limited to only six seconds per slide.
The six seconds were valuated as sufficient time for the eyes to have a good look at the picture while smelling the fragrance and hence create a reaction.
Session set up
Session 1): Participants were given the scents one by one, without knowing the label of the scent. Participants were then asked to name associations, or name the scent for each of the scents.
Session 2): After participants had smelled all four scents and valuated the scents in own words. Session two is started. Session two is set up to study the unconscious reaction toward the scent (H1) and further the conscious reaction (H2). By first testing unconscious and then conscious attention, we ensure that conscious thinking does not dilute the odour-perception.
The first slide in the eye-tracking test is an instruction on how to navigate the mouse when rating the scents. After the instruction slide, a slide with a fixating cross is presented. Participants smell the scents while looking at the cross. Here the unconscious emotional reaction is registered. Right after the fixating cross, participants are asked to rate the scent after own liking from a scale from -5 (dislike very much) to 5 (like very much). (Figure 5.2)
Figure 5.2 Session two: Eye-tracking; Fixation cross and odour ration scale Session 3): In session three, participants are asked to read an instruction slide, where after session three starts. Here participants are presented with four series of pictures, four abstract paintings and one brand logo, all pictures divided with a fixation cross.
Participants are given the scent one by one in the order of the group participants are in. Between the four series of pictures and scents, participants are asked to take three deep breaths through their nose to clear nostrils. Figure 5.3 portrays an example on how the series of pictures where presented in the conditioning session.
Figure 5.3 Session three: Eye-tracking set up; Odour and brand conditioning Session four: the last session in the experiment set up is the recognition test.
Participants waited around 30 minutes after being tested in session three (the conditioning session). When the 30 minutes break is over, participants are placed in front of nine pictures. These nine pictures consist of four brand logos and five abstract paintings - all from session 2) and 3). Participants are presented one scent at a time in a random order. After each presentation of a scent they are asked to point out maximum two of the pictures, a brand or an abstract painting or both, which they associate with the scent.
Debriefing of participants
After participants finished the tests, a short debrief of the experiments was given. For interested participants, a review of their eye-tracking results was given. E.g. heat maps and fixating points.
Results
Session one
This session was carried out in order to test the oral hedonic response and memory based vocabulary concerning odours, which has been discussed in earlier chapters (chapter 3). Session one is carried out only to illustrate the versatile associations towards odours and is not being incorporated in the final results.
There was a large individual variance in the subjects’ responses. In figure 5.4 a sample of associations given for scent B and D is illustrated. The associations appear very versatile. (For a full list of odour associations, see appendix 3)