Olfactory Brand Ownership
A study on olfactory brand enhancement of brand recognition
by
Cecilie Vernon Nørsgaard & Rikke Søs Rasmussen Cand. Merc. MCM, February 2013
Master Thesis, Department of marketing, Copenhagen Business School Supervisor: Thomas Zoëga Ramsøy
No. STU: 224.116
Acknowledgement
We would like to give special thanks, first of all to our supervisor Thomas Zoëga Ramsoy for advice and guidance.
Also a special thanks to Ambient Idea for lending us fragrances for the experiment.
To all the Decision Neuroscience Research Group members for helping us set up the eye-tracking experiment and to all the participants who participated in the odour memory experiment.
Executive summary
The olfactory link to the brain's emotional center is a fascinating frontier in neuroscience, behavioural science and marketing.
The ambition for this study is to provide a new perspective on the emerging and controversial area of sensory neuromarketing and the concept of olfactory brand ownership with enhancing brand recognition through sent.
A brand image represents the tangible benefits, whereas the personality of the brand indicates an emotional association to this specific brand. Brand personality cultivates brand equity, which determines the brand attitude. The concept of brand equity is to indicate the value of the brand, which added value to the product becomes the virtue of the brand. Incorporating odour in a branding strategy is therefore valuable.
Our experimental design draws upon olfaction, emotion and associative learning theory and the effect on the motivated behaviour, which is proven by Rachel Herz, 2004 (Theory on associative learning).
Results from the experiment revealed that participants’ pupil dilation showed a significant emotional reaction when presented with a scent. Furthermore, the results showed that a stronger emotional reaction towards a scent, in fact did not have a significant importance in generating a superior recognition of the brands. It was also found that the participants’ hedonic perceptions influence the ability to recognise brands via an odour, depending on how familiar or pleasant the odour is to the individual.
Finally, it was found that a possibility of enhancing brand recognition through odours occurred, but a more in-depth discussion and investigation on this matter is important in understanding the findings. The findings argues, that the conditioned response between an odour and a brand needs to be experienced more through continuously repetition to create a conditioned response with a higher probability for brand recognition.
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION... 7
METHODOLOGY ...10
RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY...10
Research design...10
Data collection...11
Approach ...11
Strategies...11
Choice...11
Time horizons...12
Limitations...12
CHAPTER 2 SENSORY BRANDING ...13
Introduction branding...14
Sensory branding...14
BRAND RECOGNITION...15
BRANDING WITH LOGOS AND SOUNDS...16
Children and Brand recognition...18
EMOTIONAL BONDING TO A BRAND...19
Emotive branding ...22
SCENT MARKETING...23
Studies on scent marketing ...25
Intangible products...26
THE CRITICAL ASPECTS OF SCENT MARKETING...27
Sub conclusion...31
CHAPTER 3 OLFACTORY SYSTEM ...32
WHAT IS OLFACTORY...33
OLFACTORY DISCOVERIES...35
ROLE OF THE AMYGDALA...39
MEMORIES OF ODOURS...40
Recollection of memory...40
EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT MEMORY...43
Context dependent and autobiographical memory...45
Sub conclusion...46
VERBAL, NON VERBAL RECOGNITION...46
ENHANCE BRAND MEMORY...49
Emotional arousal on memory...49
The Neurobiological connection ...50
CHAPTER 4 COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE ...52
MODERN COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE VIEWS...53
NEUROMARKETING MEASURES...54
Neuroscientific branding...55
Neuromarketing scepticism ...56
CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND NEUROSCIENCE...57
Value-based model of choice...57
BUYING BEHAVIOUR...59
Sub conclusion...60
CHAPTER 5 THE SENT OF USING SCENT ...61
A SENSE OF ODOUR...62
Olfactory preferences...63
Mediating factors: Visual – Verbal Priming...65
Sent of scent in marketing ...66
The future: Defining brands through scent...67
Personality of scents...68
OLFACTORY HERALD A NEW AGE FOR ADVERTISING -‐ HOW DOES YOUR BRAND SMELL LIKE?...69
Industry insight – Who are the creators...71
The industry ...71
Interview with Ambient Idea ...73
Emotions vs. feelings...78
Emotional choice...80
CULTURAL ASPECTS OF OLFACTORY...81
INTRODUCING PERFUME...81
The meaning of a scent...82
Olfactory talent - the nose knows a lot...83
Odours in rituals...86
Sub conclusion: ...88
ROI ON SCENT MARKETING...89
Brand Equity...90
Review of theoretical findings...92
CHAPTER 6 RESEARCH DESIGN ...94
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN...95
HYPOTHESES...96
Pilot testing ...97
Pilot odour memory test set up...99
Set up...100
Sample population ...101
Instructions ...101
Testing procedure...101
Groups...102
Critique of experiment set-up...103
EYE-‐TRACKER... 103
Odour test with Eye-tracker...104
Session set up...105
RESULTS... 106
Session one...106
Session two ...107
Session three ...108
Session four...110
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS H1, H2, H3 & H3... 111
Analysing H1...111
Analysing H2...111
Analysing H3...113
Analysing H4...114
VALIDITY... 117
Environmental control ...118
Control of demand effect ...118
Limitations in results ...118
DISCUSSION... 119
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS... 119
DISCUSSION OF THEORETICAL FINDINGS... 120
Industrial aspects...120
Theoretical aspects ...123
FURTHER RESEARCH... 124
Real-life experiment in the shopping environment...124
CONCLUSION... 124
BIBLIOGRAPHY... 127
APPENDIX... 133
Chapter
1
Introduction
Most people have experienced a moment when a faint fragrance brings a memory of a long-lost moment in time crashing back to the front of your mind.
Often we will have forgotten about the event completely, yet a brief odour can retrieve the long-lost memory in a second.
One often-quoted example of this phenomenon is an anecdote from Proust (1922/1960) in which the author is vividly reminded of childhood experiences by the smell of a tea-soaked pastry:
“And soon, mechanically, weary after a dull day with the prospect of a depressing morrow, I raised to my lips a spoonful of the tea in which I had soaked a morsel of the cake. No sooner had the warm liquid, and the crumbs with it, touched my palate than a shudder ran through my whole body, and I stopped, intent upon the extraordinary changes that were taking place. . . . I was conscious that it was connected with the taste of tea and cake, but that it infinitely transcended those savours, could not, indeed, be of the same nature as theirs.” (p. 58)
Proust’s experiences formed the basis of what has become known as the Proust phenomenon, the ability of odours spontaneously to cue autobiographical memories, which are highly vivid, affectively toned and very old.
The reason for the powerful effect of odour can be explained via the olfactory bulb, which is a part of the brain’s limbic system, an area closely associated with memory and feelings i.e. the “emotional brain”.
In recent years we have seen advances in neuroimagining to such an extent, that neuroscientist now are capable of studying the frequency, location and timing of neural activity to an unprecedented level. However, it can be argued that the marketing field largely has remained unaware of such advances and the following potential.
Today, neuomarketing as a field of study can be defined as the application of neuroscientific methods to analyse and understand human behaviour in relation to decision-making and marketing exchange. The contribution of neuroscientific methods can be used in a marketing relevant understanding of human behaviour,
mixed with the advantages of already known physiological measurements for marketing.
The link to the brain's emotional centre makes odour a fascinating frontier in neuroscience, behavioural science and marketing.
This study is aimed at providing a new perspective on the emerging and controversial field of neuromarketing and the ideas of olfactory brand enhancement. We focus on the concept brand ownership via olfaction. Brand ownership is, in this study, used s a term for how brands can “own” a specific sensory cue e.g. a sound, a colour composition, a logo or in this case a scent. Brands “own” a sensory cue when the specific cue is connected with the brand and only that brand. The aim of brand ownership is to create preference and recognition among the consumers.
What is brand recognition? In general it, can be discussed to the extent to which the general public is able to identify a brand by its attributes. Brand recognition is most successful when people can state a brand without being explicitly exposed to the brands name but rather through visual signifiers like logos, slogans and colours.
We find it interesting to examine if odour cues can be used to enhance brand recognition, matched with a logo, jingle, name etc.
In order to limit our field of study we are aiming to reflect and examine the following research questions.
• Odour cues enhance brand recognition?
o Is olfactory a superior sense in brand recognition?
o Can the term olfactory brand ownership being applied in branding?
In order to answer our research question the following research epistemology is adopted.
Methodology
The choice of research philosophy supports our overall research design and in turn establishes our methodological approach to explain the complexity of the research question and the way in which we gather knowledge throughout the process (Saunders et al., 2007)
Research Philosophy
The primary research philosophy reflects the principles of positivism. Positivism is a philosophy of science-based views that in the social as well as natural sciences, sensory experiences, logical and mathematical treatments and reports together are the exclusive source of all authoritative knowledge. (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009)
“Only phenomena that you can observe will lead to the production of credible data”
(Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009, p.103)
To generate a research strategy to collect data we are using existing theory to develop hypotheses. These hypotheses will be tested and confirmed, in whole or part, or refuted, leading to further development of theory, which then may be tested by further research.
In this research study we are adding an inductive approach in prolonging from our scientific philosophy of positivism, in which we develop a theoretical framework.
This framework is subsequently tested by the deductive use of experimental data.
By adding a hypothetic-deductive approach, as our scientific method enable us to proceed formulating a hypothesis in a form that could be conceived falsified by a test on observable data or reified.
Research design
As a part of our research we are conducting an exploratory study, to generate a posteriori hypotheses by examining data sets and looking at potential relations between variables. The exploratory approach gives us the advantage of making new discoveries due to the less stringent methodological restriction. (Saunders, Lewis, &
Thornhill, 2009). By adopting an explorative approach we are conducting an experiment developed on previous literature and by interviewing expert with expert knowledge within the field of olfactory and branding.
Data collection
Data and knowledge are deducted from traditionally marketing theory and the field of cognitive neuroscience that brings in the empirically endorsed reliability and contributes to the constructivist narrative notions of the brand management field (Walvis, 2007).
The data used for this research study is based on secondary data, primary qualitative data via interviews and quantitative data via the experiment. The secondary data consist mostly of documentary data in the area of scientific journals, articles and websites. Other secondary data comes from multiple sources such as textbooks. Also, survey based secondary data in the form of academic surveys were used.
Approach
Our research approach is in the first part of the study, as mentioned above, based on an inductive approach where we gather theoretical knowledge to exploit our research.
The second part of the study is a deductive approach. Here, we develop hypotheses based on our theoretical findings and test these hypotheses via an experiment. The progress of our research is as follows: 1) Deducing hypotheses from theory. 2) Using theoretical based knowledge and qualitative data (interviews) to express how the variables of the hypotheses are to be measured. 3) Testing the hypotheses. 4) Examining the specific outcome of the inquiry.
Strategies
This study is divided into two general research strategies. The first strategy is an embedded case study strategy with use of different data collections. These data collections are based upon multiple cases and interviews. This is to establish, if there occurs some kind of generalisation from the different case findings that may lead to a consistency.
The second research strategy is experimental. The purpose of the experiment is to study causal links; e.g. how different variables react if on one of them changes. A specified research design will be presented in chapter 6, the chapter regarding the experiment.
Choice
The choice of research methods is based on how we have chosen to combine quantitative and qualitative techniques and procedures (Saunders, Lewis, &
Thornhill, 2009). Our choice of research methods is a mixed model research. A
combination of quantitative and qualitative data techniques is being used and analyzed as well as combining qualitative and quantitative approaches. We applied qualitative research techniques in the form of interviews and theoretical literature in the explanatory stage and then applied quantitative research techniques in the form of an experiment in the exploring stage.
The reason why we have chosen this research method is because we want to highlight critical and crucial questions through interviews and literature and thereafter using an experiment to collect the descriptive data.
Time horizons
The time horizon for this study is cross-sectional. A cross-sectional study is a study of a particular phenomenon at a particular time. Our study is not a representation of events over a given period, but a “snapshot” taken at a particular time. (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009). The time horizon for the execution of this thesis was constrained from the beginning.
Limitations
Although the research of this study has reached its aim, some unavoidable limitations occurred. First, the time limit of this research was constraint; secondly the experiment was conducted in a controlled environment and conducted on a small sample of population. Therefore to generalise the result for larger groups may not be applicable.
Other limitations on this study are how we used and collected data. Specific questions and variables were not taken into consideration before conducting the experiment, which may be a limitation in the absolute truths of findings.
Chapter
2
Sensory Branding
Introduction branding
The following chapter will be focusing on the branding theoretical aspects of this study. In the first part, we will discuss the applied theories and examine the concept of branding in relation to sensory marketing. We are focusing on brand recognition and brand recall in order to describe the importance of brand differentiation. Further more, the opportunities for brands to create a cue to recognition through senses like visual, auditory or through scents are examined.
Further, we will examine how emotions can be exploited in branding. This examination is based upon the idea that a brand can trigger emotions through senses.
By this, a brand may have a recognition advantage compared to its competitors. This part especially focuses on how a brand can reach consumer loyalty by exploiting emotions among the consumers.
In the part concerning branding with logos and sounds, we are examining how brands can exploit a specific sense, which is related to a feeling. This may be through, a sound or a logo and may create an immediate recognition in consumers mind.
In conclusion scent marketing will be introduced as the last part of the brand theory.
Here, we examine how scent can be used in a marketing strategy and discuses several examples of current scent marketing strategies. We also identify the downsides with the use of scent marketing and the negative reactions that come along.
Sensory branding
In the recent decades we have seen a move away from traditional mass marketing towards more experimental and event-based marketing (Krishna, 2012).
Using sensory marketing as unconscious trigger in advertising is in many ways a very efficient way to appeal to consumers (Krishna, 2012). A lot of research has been conducted, where elements of vision, touch, audition and smell are incorporated.
These researches have shown how sensory cues can have a crucial affect on consumer preferences and consumer buying behaviour.
Sensory marketing could be described as a relatively new application for the understanding of sensation and perception of marketing especially regarding the area of consumer perception, cognition, emotion, learning preference, choice and
evaluation (Krishna, 2012).
As this study is concentrated on scent marketing, and especially on how scent can be connected to a specific brand, the focus will generally draw on former research in the field of scent marketing. Though, to fully understand the underlying dimensions of scent marketing, it will be crucial to focus on the importance of brand awareness and recognition.
In terms of defining odours, different terms are employed e.g. fragrance, perfume and aroma, which are used primarily in the food and cosmetic industry to describe a pleasant odour. In contrast malodour, stench, reek and stink are used specifically in describing an unpleasant odour. In marketing terms the word scent is the preferred option in this field. In later theory concerning the olfactory system, odour is the favourable employed term.
Brand recognition
Brand recognition is a key factor in a competitive industry where thousands of brands are struggling to differentiate. To survive in a fierce competition, a firm have to consider which communication strategies it is using to create brand recognition when it comes to its brand’s core values. When focussing on sensory marketing, brand recognition is often associated with the visual aspects of the brand. Through logos, colours and text the brand is given an identity that is recognisable to the consumers.
Even though visual brand recognition is where most marketers put their efforts, other senses like sound and smell can have just as crucial an effect when it comes to recalling and recognising a brand. Initially, it is important to understand how visual brand recognition is employed and further connect it to other senses.
One study (Karjalainen, Snelders et al. 2010) examined how strategically to employ a design to create visual recognition of a brand. The study was focusing on the marketing efforts of Nokia and Volvo. These two brands managed to employ a design philosophy on which, design features effectively helped expressing the core value of the brand and thereby created strong brand recognition.
The study found that the success of both companies (Nokia and Volvo) resulted from the great effort the companied made in translating their core brand values into a
design that created brand recognition. The companies also used different design philosophies depending on the various products in the product portfolio. The companies’ lead products had the most influence on the design features and worked as a reference point for what the brands stand for. These lead products received most intention from the managers and would later on serve as examples for new NPD projects in the company. This made it possible to influence the design philosophy throughout the entire product portfolio of the company.
The study also found that there is no easy or simple recipe for creating visual recognition for a brand but instead the companies must make an effort in continuously renewing the connection between brand value and the design features (Karjalainen, Snelders et al. 2010). The result of the study revealed that the quality of a visual brand depends on how well it is aligned with the overall brand strategy and how the brands core value is identified through the visual design.
A study like this is a good example on how a company can create customer recognition by using the visual aspect. It could also be relevant to use other senses like auditory, tactile or olfactory that to a great extent also play a very important role when it comes to brand recognition. Taking an example from the article (Karjalainen, Snelders et al. 2010), Nokia created a characteristic ring tone that was one of the first nontechnical-sounding ring tones, and was a good example on how Nokia both created a human approach to technology and a brand recognisable feature.
Branding with logos and sounds
A visual logo is an effective way to create recognition of a product and a brand. Its unique design, colour and distinctiveness are crucial parameters when it comes to differentiation among competitors and consumers preferences. A typical logo has a traditional graphic form, is recognisable and creates feelings and favourable or unfavourable associations with customers.
The most straightforward way to create a specific logo ownership on a brand is through the sense of vision. Vision is in many ways the most simple of all the senses and can be used in most medias, e.g. television, billboards, Internet, events etc.
(Krishna, A. 2008).In literature the sense of sight is considered as the most important sensory channel when it comes to the perception of a store environment. Research
also confirms this impact of visual cues on consumer behaviour. This is especially applicable in terms of consumption, purchase quantity or sales (Krishna, A. 2008) A visual brand logo also facilitates the identification of the brand and contributes to differentiation from its competitors, because the logo acts as the brand’s general image and value. Logos can shape the brand’s reputation and customer’s attitudes towards it and in the end affect purchase intentions.
The logos also visually represent what the brand stands for and serve as a crucial point of connection by reinforcing the brands core values. In this way, the logo creates associations between the consumer’s self and the brand, which helps the consumers see the brand as a part of themselves (Park, Eisingerich et al. 2012).
Auditory branding and jingles, is a good example on how a brand can make recognisable sense related branding.
Sound logos or jingles are, in particular, a great way of capturing the customers’
attention and making the brand recognisable just by listening to a tune lasting only a few seconds. This jingle will typically be effective at the end of a television spot.
Connected with a traditional graphic logo, the sound logo will give the ad an extra vivacity. A typical sound logo is a melody lasting around 3 to 5 seconds or a sequence of sounds used at the end of a TV commercial.
Auditory is linked directly to human memory - and recall and works most efficiently if the jingle is catchy and hummable. When we hear a familiar melody or jingle, our brain automatically anticipates how it should end. In this way we become unconsciously involved with the tune and that is what gives sound logos such great power and strength in the marketing perspective (Lusensky 2010).
Those sound logos that create most value to the brand are those who have a long-term existence and through continuously repetition provide the listener with instant recognition (Lusensky 2010).
Take a brand like Coca Cola. Just by hearing the sound of a soda bottle opening, most people would link it to a Coca Cola bottle. In that way, Coca Cola has managed to take ownership of that particular sound which gives the brand a huge advantage when
it comes to customer’s preferences and brand perception. In this way, Coca Cola is creating a need. You hear the sound and you want to drink.
Coca Cola is also a good example of a company that uses music as a big part of its branding strategy. The global Music Manager for Coca Cola, Umut Ozaydinli, believes that music has a great ability to connect with peoples’ feelings and thereby affecting their mindset in many different ways. The right kind of music will enhance the experience of all kinds of communications whether it is a television advertisement or an event. It helps the brand communicate with the audience on a deeper level and create a whole new dimension (Lusensky 2010).
Children and Brand recognition
A typical adult can contain a huge number of brand representations in the memory (Achenreiner, John et al. 2003). Much research has been conducted to explore this field, but the research literature seems to have forgotten that children and youngsters are becoming more and more conscious about brand preferences. In short, age seems to have a determining role when it comes to memory and recognition. Being exposed to a certain brand in the early childhood increases the memory of the brand in later adult years (Achenreiner, John et al. 2003). In a later chapter (the Olfactory System p.
38, the concept of autobiographical memory will presented and explained.
The current generation of children and youngsters are the most brand conscious generation ever. They have clear preferences and know what they want (Achenreiner, John et al. 2003). A study (Valkenburg, Buijzen et al. 2005) was conducted to examine how and when brand awareness develops in young children. The study highlighted the influence of several environmental factors such as television, parents or peers that interfered the children’s brand awareness. The study focused on the terms brand recall and brand recognition and the importance of taking advantage of the marketing possibilities this young generation presents.
Brand recognition is necessary for purchasing a specific brand in a retail environment whereas brand recall is to what extent the consumer can remember the brand name or other brand attributes by top of mind. (Valkenburg, Buijzen et al. 2005)
According to the author (Valkenburg, Buijzen et al. 2005), children’s ability to recognise brands starts earlier in their development then the ability to recall brands.
I.e. children are better at recognising a favourable brand in a retail environment then recalling a brand out of context.
The explanation for this notion is that recalled memory requires two cognitive steps;
1) a mental search for a specific memory unit. 2) A determination of whether the activated memory unit is actually correct.
In contrast, to recalled memory, recognition memory requires only one step and that is step 2). Children generally have problems with taking a mental search for a particular memory unit and therefore it is easier for them to recognise than recall.
(Valkenburg, Buijzen et al. 2005)
The study concluded that the younger the children were, the harder it was for them to recognise and recall the brands. Especially brand recall was very difficult for the youngest of the children, and they could hardly recall any of the brand logos.
The study also showed that even though age was a crucial factor in this case the television exposure and the influence of parents and peers also had a central role in the development of young children’s brand awareness. It appeared that children’s brand recognition starts earlier in development than their brand recall. Furthermore, the fact that children and youngsters are becoming more and more brand conscious, marketers are becoming well aware of the accessibilities end receptiveness of this target group.
Another study from 2009 (Ellis, Holmes et al. 2009) investigated the importance of focusing on children when it comes to brand recognition. The earlier in life a person was represented to a brand (name or logo) the faster and better the brand was recognised. Early acquired brands would especially be favoured in impulse-buying situations.
Important notions from theses studies are, that early brand exposure in childhood generates greater brand recognition in adulthood and will persist through life.
Emotional bonding to a brand
Marketers know that if they can create a positive emotional bond between the brand and the customer, they may have a preferential advantage. In an article from Grisaffe and Nguyen (Grisaffe, Nguyen et al., 2010) the concept of repurchasing based on
emotional attachment to brands is being portrayed. Researchers have widely acknowledged that repurchasing driven by emotions has a positive affect. According to the article, emotional brand attachment is a significant determent of loyal behaviour.
The study was conducted to investigate the relationship between people and brands that they fell emotionally attached to. The test persons in the study were to report and describe how long they have purchased this brand and why they fell emotionally attached to this specific brand. Among the various reports, some of the test persons described how they fell emotionally attached to a brand because of the sensory pleasure that the brand provided.
In particular, if a brand had some sort of scent that recalled some pleasurable memories from the childhood the participants felt that they had a strong emotional bond to the product or brand. It was especially when the brand evoked some nostalgic experiences of eras, people or places, which the participants felt emotionally attached to the brand. Because of this emotional bond they have remained loyal towards this brand for several years and refuses to buy or try other products.
One study (Albert, Merunka et al. ) portrays how consumers develop feelings of love towards a brand. The respondents of the study were to describe their feeling of love for the brand and which special relationship they had with the brand. The study was aimed at determining if a feeling of love towards a brand is similar to the feeling of love for a person and which dimension characterizes this type of feeling. Anther issue the study investigated was the barriers across different cultures. Could different cultures have different perceptions of the love construct? In this case a French and a U.S study was conducted.
The study identified several different dimensions of love for a brand. Among them was passion for a brand, self-congruity between self-image and product image. It also identified how the brand favours consumer’s dreams, memories evoked by the brand, pleasure that the brand provides to the consumer, the beauty and attraction towards the brand.
Especially passion and pleasure were the two love dimensions that both cultures (the French and the American) shared in this matter. What was worth noticing in this
context was the different use of the word love in the two cultures. The Americans use the word love in a wider extend than the French who rather used the words “like” or
“adore” to describe their feelings towards the brand. The French were also more dedicated to the dimensions of memories and trust especially when it came to memories of childhood, images or history.
Other dimensions of connections towards a brand were found, but did not relate to feelings of love. Attachment and commitment were some of those dimensions that had an important effect on brand relationships, but were not directly related to the feeling of love. The study showed that when the term attachment was used, the consumers said that they were only attached to the brand and did not posses any feelings that could be described as loving feelings.
The word “love” is often used when we describe an object, an activity or when we most importantly describe our feelings toward another person. This could be: “ I really love that dress” or “ I love running”. This means that objects and things have a big influence on consumers and how they perceive themselves. A study from 2005 (Ahuvia, 2005) investigated how objects and activities that were “loved” by consumers could be linked to an identity construction.
The main purpose of the study was to discover to what extent identity issues are central to consumption and that possessions are an important part of the self.
Interviews were conducted to investigate to what extent items were seen as a part of the self. It was discovered that it varied continuously with the level of attachment to the brand.
Love objects seemed to be a symbol of the personality or self that the consumer wants to become. It could also be considered as the consumers’ conflict of wanting to pursue unattainable ideals. In most cases, the so-called socializing agents would endorse these ideals. Socializing agent could be close family, peers, school relations or other relations that are big influencers in the consumers’ life. These agents could act as a role model and dictate what is modern. The consumers purchasing decisions is highly affected by these individuals (Ahuvia, 2005).
Having a love object seemed to have given the consumers a solution to a possible identity conflict. According to the research, these love objects receive much of the
consumers’ emotional powers from helping resolve these conflict. This may have a great importance in the consumers’ lives.
The main intention with this research was to show how consumers use things that they love to construct a sense of self when they are to face identity conflicts.
Furthermore it portrays how a materialistic aspect seems to have gained more and more access into the lifestyle of today’s consumers (Ahuvia, 2005). As possessions reflect the identity of the consumer and in turn these possessions contribute to that same identity, the consumer has then created an extended self (Ahuvia, 2005). These possessions could be anything from clothes to computers, but it could also be a specific perfume that the consumer wants to be indentified with. The scent of the perfume has a specific meaning and value for the consumer.
Emotive branding
The new area of branding, hereunder experiential branding, seeks to create more intimate and unique experiences across the full range of consumer touch points.
Experiential branding relies on consumer needs and strives to create a sensory- emotive experience rather than just to communicate an identity. It is also based on realizing that the brand is, for the consumer, a series of experiences that together form the “story” of the brand-customer relationship (Hill, Dan, 2003).
One good example of a company that understands the importance of the brand story on the children’s market is McDonalds. The company has managed to create an overall setting that contains everything from the surroundings. E.g. the playground, a wide variety of imagery, symbols and associations such as Ronald McDonald toys, the signature colours red and yellow and the golden arches. All of these elements represent a radical new form of brand equity and a story that taps into the target audience (Hill, Dan, 2003).
By tapping in early, in the child state, the brand story has a longer shelf life and offers a greater value later on in the adult life. It also increases the possibility that the brand and its value will be passed on to the next generation.
Having a “story” tied to the brand also provides a lot of value for the brand. The golden arches and the other elements used by McDonalds have managed to give the brand a width where the food is not the only important thing. This means, that the
French fries might be served cold but provided with the total branded experience the customers seems to neglect these disappointments (Hill, Dan, 2003).
Scent Marketing
Imagine being in a store looking for a new sweater. Your eyes are focusing on the colours and form of the sweater while your hands are feeling the smooth fabric. The speakers are playing some modern music in the background and thereby engaging your auditory system. In addition to these sensory cues, a specific scent might have been added in the store to activate an unconscious emotion. This could be the scent of vanilla or rose maroc depending on whether you are a woman or a man (Bradford, Desrochers et al. 2010). Without you being aware of it, this scent could be the crucial factor in the decision making process of your purchase, and it could have a crucial effect on your buying decision.
In the chapter; Cognitive Neuroscience, a more in dept examination of the consumer buying behaviour will be examined (p. 52)
In a scent marketing aspect you can talk about three different ways in which scents are used (Bradford, Desrochers et al. 2010). Figure 2.1 displays these three ways as a framework for how scent is used in marketing. From the left it is the “marketer scent”
that is used by marketers as a promotional tactic. Examples of this could be Verizon adding a chocolate scent to its stores when introducing its new Chocolate cell phone in 2008 (Bradford, Desrochers et al. 2010).
The next type of scent is “product scent” where the scent is the actual product. This could be a product like perfume or air fresheners that customers buy to use them on them selves or in their homes to create a preferred scent.
Ambient scent, the last of the scent categories, is a general odour that is presented as a part of a retail environment and is not derived from a product. In this category of ambient scent there are two types. First is the objective scent, which is scent, used in a retail environment with the attention of affecting the attitudes and behaviour of consumers. The other type is convert objective scent. Convert means that the scent is not openly acknowledges or displayed, but it does not mean that the scent is intentionally hidden. The convert ambient scent is also infused to motivate an action or influence the consumer behaviour but is completely below the consumers’ entrance
of consciousness. The use of convert ambient scent, though, is very risky for marketers because of the manipulative motives. If consumers discover that their buying behaviour has been manipulated with a scent, it might create a feeling of intrusion in their minds.
When consumers become aware of this manipulation of their senses, they automatically start thinking less of the store and get the feeling that their “free will”
has been taken away from them. (Bradford, Desrochers, et al. 2010). Further details about this area will be presented in the next part; The critical aspects of scent marketing p 23.
A research (Bradford, Desrochers et al. 2010) showed that up to 84% of customers in a shoe shop were more likely to buy shoes or like them more when the environment was scented. Further, many of the costumers said they would pay 10-15% more for the product. According to the Scent Marketing Institute (SMI) some of the most effective scents are leather and cedar because of their abilities to motivate the consumers to buy expensive furniture. Sweet citrus scent also has a very positive effect on the consumer buying behaviour. In a study, the citrus scent manages to almost double the average total purchases in a retail store. Other studies have showed that scent paired together with music have positive effect on consumers shopping behaviour, since the customers tend to stay longer and their moods tend to get better.
When music and scent were congruent with each other positive interaction effect found place. These studies show how customer satisfaction can increase through thoughtful insertion of ambient scent. (Bradford, Desrochers et al. 2010)
It is not only from a marketing point of view that an ambient scent can be effective.
Study shows that pleasant scents can have a positive affect on performance in the workplace. Adding scent to the workplace environment seemed to increase people’s creativity in problem solving and self-efficacy (Bradford, Desrochers et al. 2010).
Figure 2.1 Framework for using scent in marketing: Source: (Bradford, Desrochers et al. 2010).
Even though scenting the stores in order to sell more products, it is a relatively new development. Marketers already tried experimenting with this decades ago, but obtained a rather negative result (Bradford, Desrochers et al. 2010). The general concern about the environment and health and the belief that scent is personal and should not be public phenomenon, resulted in an attempt that backfired. But today these worries seem to have disappeared, and still more retail stores, casinos, hotels etc. are using scent to make the consumers feel more willing to buy or relaxed (Bradford, Desrochers et al. 2010).
Studies on scent marketing
A study has been conducted on how feminine scents were used and how sales of women clothes doubled (Trivedi, Bijal, 2006). Using a gender-preferred scent seemed to be the most important factor in this study. Both men and woman browsed in the store for a longer time and spent more money in stores that had inserted an ambient scent that appealed to their gender. The study also showed that the scent preference depended on distinct geographic and cultural factors showing that genders have a specific preference within each geographic area and culture. This will be further discussed in a later chapter (The sent of using scent, pp. 72)
There are many examples of stores and companies there are using scent as a form of signature brand. The cell phone company Verizon Wireless used chocolate scent
when launching their new LG chocolate phone; Sony also joined the scent phenomena by scenting their Sony Style stores and went even further with sending its signature scent home with the costumer in scented sachets in shopping bags (Trivedi, Bijal, 2006).
The Danish shoe brand Ecco, has been experimenting with scent marketing in their retail stores to stimulate the costumers to make purchases. Ecco uses grass scent in their golf shoes departments to enhance the feeling of standing on a golf course in order to induce the costumer to buy. Ecco, also scent their retail stores with the scent of leather to emphasize that their shoes have a high quality (Ecco, Ministeriet for Børn Og Undervisning)1. This is a relatively new marketing initiative for Ecco and they are still testing the effect of scent marketing to determine if this strategy should be a core component of their store environment, but so far it have shown very positive effects (Ecco, Ministeriet for Børn Og Undervisning)2.
These are a few examples of brands using signature scenting. Most brands, though feel reluctant to admit that they are using scent in their stores and try to avoid the publicity. Some brands even fear that it would destroy the effect of the scent if it became public that subliminal scenting was used as a marketing strategy. The fear of being accused of subliminal marketing and manipulation is also a reason why some brands feel reluctant to tell the public the truth about the use of scent in the marketing strategy. General concerns for the use of chemicals in scents, which could evoke asthma, or an allergic reaction are also a reason why brands do not openly admit to using scent marketing (Daye, Derrick , 2008)3.
Intangible products
Moving from tangible products to more intangible products, such as services, using scent as a marketing strategy can also be an effective tactic. The presence of a scent
1
(http://www.emu.dk/erhverv/merkantil_caseeksamen/ecco/fakta/tema_maalgrupper_og_koebmandska b.pdf).
2
(http://www.emu.dk/erhverv/merkantil_caseeksamen/ecco/soundslides/15_jacob_duftmarkekdsfoering /kodefil.html)
3 http://www.brandingstrategyinsider.com/2008/04/the-sweet-smell.html#.UQ2VCkojjcs
in an environment where consumers are to make important decisions, e.g. taking a loan or buying insurance, has great significance and could have a crucial influence on the consumers’ intentions and behaviours and make them more willing to take a loan.
A pleasant scent would of course affect the service or object in a positive way. But this could be rather tricky, since scents in general are perceived differently from person to person. Studies have shown that in most situations a pleasant scent in a retail environment leads to a more positive and longer product evaluation, and the inclination to revisit the store increases (Lena Goldkuhl, Maria Styv et al., 2007).
Having a scent in the store environment is not always enough. Research has shown that there has to be some kind of congruity between the product/service offered and the scent. In the service sector, the entire composition of the colours, sound, and the product offering depend on whether the specific scent has an effect or not (Lena Goldkuhl, Maria Styv et al., 2007).
More and more service brands choose to create a signature scent to help trigger emotions in consumers that make the connection stronger toward the brand (Lena Goldkuhl, Maria Styv et al., 2007).
An example of a service provider that has been using a signature scent is Singapore Airlines. The company is consciously using scents in their marketing strategy. A specific scent is used when you buy the ticket in the store, when you receive the ticket and when you are flying with the airplane. The scent symbolizes the total experience you get when you fly with Singapore Airlines, and this scent is printed in the memory and will stimulate future associations towards to the experience and then to the airline company ( Grumstrup, Kirsten, 2005)4.
The critical aspects of scent marketing
Ever since marketers started using scent as a communication strategy, critical aspects and ethical issues have been raised concerning the scent marketing industry (The Marketer, 2011)5.
As the sense of smell prompts immediate emotional response, marketers might take advantage of the strong unconscious emotions consumers may have toward a specific
4 http://www.kommunikationsforum.dk/artikler/duften-af-penge
5 http://www.themarketer.co.uk/trends/scent-marketing/
scent. Manipulating with consumers unconscious emotions via advertising and branding is not a new phenomena in the marketing field, but due to the many un- known variables in scent marketing, the manipulation of senses may see a lot more interfering since, the senses of scent is one of the strongest and most vivid. (Hertz, Rachel S. and Engen, Trygg 1996)
Other critical aspects of the scent marketing field according to (Bradford, Desrochers et al. 2010) are that the scent industry in its entire links are well-known of manipulating the consumers. The use of convert ambient scent, especially, is very risky for the marketer. If consumers discover that their buying behaviour has been manipulated with a scent they might develop a negative reaction to the loss of freedom to make a choice. This reaction is called “psychological reactance”
(Bradford, Desrochers et al. 2010).
Once consumers feel that they have been manipulated into making a certain choice in a retail store, the consumer might think less of the store that they are visiting.
Furthermore, when a consumer realises a manipulation the consumer will think more negatively of the sources behind the persuasion attempt and of oneself. This will, in worst case, end up crashing the whole idea behind ambient scent marketing (Bradford, Desrochers et al. 2010). To detect the source of these critical aspects, a closer look at the scent marketing industry and the different channels is explained in the following pages.
Figure 2.2 displays a model of four components that binds the scent industry together -from the developer to the consumer. These components are: 1) the ambient scent researcher 2) the ambient scent marketer 3) the retailer and 4) the consumer. The researcher develops the scents that are believed to have an effect on behaviour and buying attitude of the consumers. The scent marketers distribute the scents to the retailers with the purpose of generating demand and cultivating the markets. The retailer infuses the ambient scents into the retail environment. Overall the retailer is the customer in the ambient scent industry.
Figure 2.2 The Scent Industry, Source: (Bradford, Desrochers et al. 2010).
The linkage between the different components in the scent industry can often have some ethical implications that are important to consider when using ambient scent in retail stores. Retailers use ambient scent to gain advantages in the competitive markets, but forget the disadvantages they impose on their consumers (Bradford, Desrochers et al. 2010). It is not illegal for retailers to use this tactic, but some find it unethical to influence the consumers in this way and believe that there should be some kind of sign telling the customers that the store is scented (Bradford, Desrochers et al. 2010).
In the link between the ambient scent researcher and the marketer same ethical implications can occur. Some scent researchers study the consumers to find the right ambient scent for a marketing strategic purpose. The scent researchers should not knowingly provide marketing stimuli to scent marketers that manipulate the consumer buying behaviour. If they do, this will then become an ethical dilemma for the scent researchers (Bradford, Desrochers et al. 2010).
In the ever-changing retail industry it is important for marketers to employ the most innovative marketing practices in order to be competitive. Scent marketing is increasing in its popularity as being a competitive advantage in a store atmosphere.
In some cases, the scent marketers promote the capabilities of scent marketing in ways that are not reliable. These unproven claims that scent marketers further give to the retailer, directs them to purchase ambient infusion products that do not provide the promoted result. Seen from an ethical point of view scent marketers should be
careful of providing the retailers with ambient scent that influence consumers without their knowledge.
When retailers are using ambient scent, whether it is convert or not, consumers will be influenced to meet the goal of the retailer without their awareness. Retailers are using ambient scent to develop certain purchasing behaviours among their customers and to create significant competitive advantages. Because we know that scent is directly tied to our emotions and memory, the unethical approach, in this matter, is especially present when the ambient scent is convert and therefore not able to be detected by the consumers.
It is to be noted that objective ambient scent and convert objective scent have started to create serious concerns when it comes to manipulation and ethical interventions.
Despite of that, scent used in non-commercial matters can be considered as having positive effects for the retailer and other stakeholders e.g. the society, the organization and the individual (Bradford, Desrochers et al. 2010).
Importantly it can also be questioned if the ambient scent infused in a retail environment, has the same affect on all the costumers. The scent chosen by the retailer may not have the same emotional effect on the consumer as hoped for, since scent highly is subjectively perceived.
Allergy and asthma is another concern that comes a long with using ambient scent as a marketing strategy. The Danish association, Astma-Allergi Danmark, express great concerns about the increasing use of ambient scent in the retailer environment. They believe that people with asthma and allergy problems find it very irritating being in an environment where the air is scented. It could, in a worse case scenario, trigger an asthma attack or give them complications such as coughing, difficulties with breathing, a feeling of suffocation or general unpleasantness.
It is especially children that suffer from asthma and they are therefore more exposed to asthmatic attacks than adults. Astma-Allergi Danmark believes that people should at least be warned when a store is using ambient scent so that they have the opportunity to deselect these stores. To day there is no law that specifies that retailers should make it visible that they are using ambient scent in their stores. It is all up to the store manager to make this decision. The association is wondering why there are
no regulations in this area because it can be painful for an asthma or allergy patient to be in an environment or a workplace where the air is scented.
They also believe that a bigger focus should be put on which kind of chemicals that surround us in the every day life. Unions should also be more aware of this problem and focus more on this issue on the behalf of their members (Astma-Allergi Danmark)6.
Sub conclusion
We have through this section been focusing on branding in relation to sensory marketing. At first, we analyzed the importance of brand recognition and recall in order for a brand to create a consumer preference. A connection was drawn to other sensory cues, which, like scenting marketing, also having the abilities to create brand awareness. A focus was especially put on the sensory cues of the visual and auditory.
Having a visual strong design is an important sensory cue to create brand value and instant recognition for the consumers. A sound logo can create a need in the consumers mind, e.g. the sound of a Coca Cola bottle that opens and lead to an urge for a Coca Cola drink.
Consumers use brands to create an identity, which could be seen as a move to a more materialistic lifestyle where brands become a part of the (extended) self. In this new age of branding, creativity and novelty is essential parameters.
The concept of scent marketing is a very interesting field in branding and opens new possibilities for enhancing brands via scent. The examination within the area of scent marketing revealed some interesting variables that open new questions concerning how brands can exploit scent via ambient scenting and if it is possible to teach consumers to recognise a brand via scent. Other questions raised in this chapter are;
how scent is perceived e.g. objective or subjective? And if some of these questions can be identified via neuropsychological studies.
The next chapter is a discussion on how cognitive psychology and neurobiological examinations may influence scent branding and how olfaction works.
6 http://www.astma-allergi.dk/duftmarkedsfoering
Chapter
3
Olfactory System
This chapter will mainly focus on the olfactory system and theoretical discussions on how olfaction has been studied in relation to memory and learning.
Figure 3.1 Olfactory pathway (Professer Claffey, 2012).7 What is Olfactory
The olfactory system represents one of the oldest sensory modalities in the phologenetic history on mammals (Vokshoor, Amor 2011)8. Nevertheless the olfactory system remains in many ways the least understood of the sensory modalities. The olfactory system is the most thoroughly studied component of the chemosensory triad and processes information about identity, concentration and
7 http://mikeclaffey.com/psyc2/notes-other-senses.html
8 http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/835585-overview
quality of a wide range of chemical stimuli. (Castle,P.C; 51 Purves D, Augustine GJ, Fitzpatrick D, et al., 2011). These stimuli are named odorants and interact with the olfactory receptor neurons in the olfactory epithelium that lines the interior of the nose. Via chemical sensors the olfactory systems makes us able to detect food and it influences social- and sexual behaviour. The system is an extremely discriminative and sensitive chemosensory system, which makes human beings able to distinguish between a predicted high of 1000 to 4000 odours.
In terms of naming odour different terms are used as describe in above chapter. In this chapter the word scent is being replaces with odour since the term odour is better fitted in the olfactory discussion.
Odour is normally caused by one or more volatilized chemical compounds, generally at a very low concentration and stems from a substance, which is somehow volatile, i.e. a substance that easily can turn into a gas. This substance will send off molecules – odorants. That is why non-volatile materials’ like steel do not have an odour.
(Dowdey, Sarah. 2007). 9
Factors like temperature and humidity have a great effect on odour due to the increased molecular volatility. This explains why garbage smells stronger in the heat and wood musty after rain. Other odours that are dissolved in water or fat tend to have a more intense odorant.
An odour is activated when airborne molecules stimulate the olfactory receptor cells.
The perception of these odours begins with the inhalation and transportation of volatile aromas to the olfactory mucosa, which, are located bilaterally in the dorsal posterior region of the nasal cavity. (Hutchins, 2012 )
The olfactory mucosa (figure 3.1) consists of a layer of columnar epithelium, surrounding millions of olfactory neurons; these are the only neurons to communicate with the external environment and are undergoing constant replacement. (Hutchins,
9http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/life/human-biology/smell.htm
2012) Basal cells near the lamina propria are undergoing differentiation and develop into these neurons about every 5-8 weeks.
When an air born odour sweeps up through the nostrils, the molecules hit the olfactory epithelium – the centre of olfactory sensation. When an odour is sensed, is done by the help from the olfactory receptors cells, which are neurons with knob- shaped tips called dendrites. When an odorant stimulates a receptor cell, the cell sends an electrical impulse to the olfactory epithelium. (Dowdey, Sarah. "How Smell Works" 29 October 2007). The olfactory bulb has close access to the amygdala, which processes emotion and the hippocampus, which is responsible for associative learning. Thus, we see a tight wiring, odours would not trigger memories if it weren’t for conditioned response. This conditioned response is started when you first smell a new odour, this odour you link to an event, thing, a person or a moment. The brain forges a link between the odour and a memory, e.g. cinnamon with Christmas or lavender with a summer memory in the South of France. When you encounter the odour again, the link is created and ready to elicit a memory or a mood.
In everyday life, odours are often connected to contextual relationship to other events, such as Christmas, dinner, persons, etc. as mentioned above. Attention often focuses on how we feel or behave towards the events rather than on naming or identifying the odour (Olsson 2003). According to (Engen 1991) “ Olfaction is a primitive survival system serving the function of quickly categorising experiences with the chemistry of the environment without reasoning about them (…) Odours are named by function, what one does with them and in what context (…) Other means of encoding than language must be involved” (pp. 83-85)
The interest in psychology and olfactory is growing area, whereas conventionally research on vision and auditory has tended to dominate behavioural science and sensory marketing. Even though research, concentrating on these sensory fields continues, attention is now more and more being directed towards the olfactory modality and in particularly to psychological effect of the odour. (Chu,Simon 2000) Olfactory discoveries
The psychology of olfaction or aroma-chology has involved several different focuses, including a wide rang of topics. This could be the effect of odour on specific behaviours; examples could be interpersonal and consumer behaviour. Other focuses
