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thematic literature review of 181 publications (journal articles, books and chapters) which treat the topic of language in professional contexts.
The two broad categories of literature, expatriate studies and the wider international management and business research, are grouped according to how their theoretical contributions fit in Reiche et al.’s (2019) theoretical framework for global work. The framework outlines three dimensions: actors, structures and processes, where the reviewed sources, combined, demonstrate that language as a phenomenon in the broad sense is present in all three dimensions and connects them.
In the actors dimension, expatriate research of language proficiency as an antecedent for adjustment in foreign organisational contexts supplements management research, which draws on individual-level perspectives of foreign language anxiety and applied linguistics, examining the implications of working in foreign languages. In the processes dimension, expatriate research of interaction between host country nationals and expatriates is extended by IB and management studies of language as a social practice with implications for inter-employee relations and power. Finally, in the structures of global work, expatriate practical recommendations for language-sensitive HR practices are complemented by studies of language policy, and can together provide more holistic accounts of various forms of language management and strategy. The paper also proposes a processual model of language management and an interactive continuous framework. Here, the theoretical contributions of the reviewed literature outline how all three dimensions are interrelated in bidirectional relationships.
7.2 Paper 2: Language ideology in a post-merger context: exploring legitimation strategies in language policy and employee attitudes towards English as an organisational language
The commonly taken for granted role of English in international organisational contexts poses the natural question of what we base our assumptions on and how
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we explain why we use English in such contexts. Moving past historical explanations of the history of English language expansion (Crystal, 2003) and utilitarian views of English as the most common denominator for individuals with different native languages (Neeley, 2012), this paper assesses the detailed individual and organisational legitimation strategies (Vaara et al., 2006) applied to position English as the organisational language. The phenomenon is investigated in the Germanic context of a recently merged organisation. The research question is: How is English legitimated as an organisational language in the Danish/German context of a post-merger multinational corporation and what is the generative relationship between ideology and English language legitimation?
Through a qualitative single-case study (Welch et al., 2011), I have applied critical discourse analysis (Fairclough, 2005) in the investigation of semi-structured interviews with employees in HR and communication functions, as well as language policy documents. Vaara et al.’s (2006) legitimation strategies normalisation, rationalisation and moralisation are employed as dominant analytical categories for the themes which explain the role of English. The main themes outlined in the data are: ‘English is the natural corporate language’, ‘English is a component of external branding’, ‘English is compatible with a multilingual organisation’ and ‘English is the future’. Language ideology theory (Kroskrity, 2004; Lønsmann, 2015; Woolard and Shieffelin, 1994) provides the theoretical frame for the conceptualisation of ideas concerning language use.
In a context where the de facto language policy document takes the form of a language guide, which aids the reader how to use English well in external communication, the data indicates that English use in internal communication is left to individual interpretations of norms and practices. In a critical realist theorisation of the findings (Fleetwood, 2005), this paper outlines a generative mechanism, where legitimation, as individual and collective action, and language ideologies, as a structural element, produce, reproduce and adapt the role of English as an
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organisational language. On the one hand, the act of legitimating English maintains its organisational status in the Germanic context. On the other hand, the ideological bodies of thought concerning English use and the perceived role of English norms feed the legitimation agency with content. This interrelated relationship is theorised to be responsive to the changing organisational environment following an international merger, where the legitimation of English in the Germanic context remains despite the introduction of workforces which make the context even more multilingual.
7.3 Paper 3: Implications of English as a common language for expatriate academics: The interactive relationship between peer evaluations of English language proficiency, academic status and collaboration performance
Empirical studies have shown that, in organisational settings where English holds the role of an organisational language, either formally or informally, English language proficiency becomes a valuable resource which elevates peer perceptions of status (Neeley and Dumas, 2016; Sliwa and Johansson, 2014). However, less is known about the detailed functioning of English proficiency as linguistic capital (Zhang and Lauring, 2019), and its role as capital in substitution mechanisms, where proficiency, as a skill, may buffer the negative effects of the lack of other important personal characteristics. In order to explore the relationship between perceptions of status, English language proficiency and collaboration performance evaluations, this paper poses the following research question: How do evaluations of English language proficiency moderate the relationship between personal status and collaboration performance evaluations?
Bourdieu’s concept ‘linguistic capital’ (1977; 1991) provides the theoretical framework for theorising how the appraisal of skills in a language which holds a central role in the academic professional context influences the appraisal of
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professional abilities – here measured through the evaluation of collaboration performance.
Based on a sample of 171 pairs of expatriate academics and their local academic collaboration partner, we use hierarchical regression analysis to test the relationship between perceptions of status and collaboration performance, between English and local language proficiency and collaboration performance, and the moderation of English and local language proficiency of the relationship between status and collaboration performance. We find a positive effect of status and English language proficiency on collaboration performance evaluations. Furthermore, we find that high levels of English language proficiency buffer the negative effect of low status on collaboration performance.
Based on the analysis results, in a critical realist frame, we theorise that the statistical relationship, contextualised in the predominantly Nordic academic context, is an empirical-level indication of a mechanism, where English language proficiency may substitute status appraisal and facilitate perceptions of high professional abilities. Thus, we argue that, in a geographic context and profession, where English language proficiency is necessary for performing tasks, such as international publication and networking, this skill outweighs the importance of local language. This finding is surprising, given the emphasis on the local anchoring and responsibility of academic institutions in the Nordics, but indicates that the ability to perform professional tasks in collaboration involving English plays a larger role than collaboration in the local language.
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