4. Discussion
4.3 Implications for risk-‐assessments
Besides altered PLFA composition and potentially reduced freezing tolerance, heavy metals like Pb may impair cellular structures and functions. Heavy metals and oil spills are known to cause multiple sub-lethal effects, e.g. mitochondria swelling, membrane leakage, gill degradation and reduced fecundity (Johnson 1977, Donaldson & Knowles 1993, Liu et al. 2014). Considering both sub-lethal effects of toxicants and possible synergy between multiple stressors is important to develop thorough ecotoxicological risk assessments of pollutants dispersed from mining and oil activities and hereby assess the environmental impact of bioavailable elements and, if needed, address measures to reduce it. Today, most risk assessments are based on studies where only bioaccumulation, lethal concentrations or single factor experiments are being assessed. The results of this study and previous work (Bindesbøl et al. 2005, Holmstrup et al. 2008, Bindesbøl et al.
2009a, Bindesbøl et al. 2009b) indicate that assessment of pollutants by such traditional methods may be inadequate to estimate the impact of pollutant on the resident biota under natural conditions, where organisms are exposed to multiple stressors. Especially in the Arctic, where future large-scale mining and oil explorations are expected, it is crucial that future risk measures and
oceans, ice cover, decreasing salinity) and biotic (food scarcity) stressors and their interactions with various contaminants in this region.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Lise Lauridsen for technical support and Christian Damgaard for statistical advice. We also thank Kattegatcentret, Denmark, for providing filtrated seawater. JT was supported by a grant from ‘Selskabet for Arktisk Forskning og Teknologi (SAFT)’.
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