The objective of this thesis was to investigate how choice architects in accordance with current EU privacy legislation affect users’ decision-making towards accepting cookies.
The EU acknowledges the importance of privacy and has for that reason implemented legislation within the field, the latest addition being the GDPR. Having reviewed current informational privacy legislation with regard to consent and cookies, we identified an overarching focus on the
information that should be provided to the user in order for consent to be valid. As such, it seems that the EU is legislating for the homo economicus who considers all relevant information to maximise utility, and ultimately decide upon the option equal to preference. This assumption of the completely rational user is, however, in opposition to the dual process theory within the field of behavioural economics. Rather, users are limited by bounded rationality and rely on dual processes when making decisions, which result in heuristics and cognitive biases. Empirical research has demonstrated how these heuristics and biases can be exploited in order to influence decision-making. On the basis of this literature, a gap was identified in assessing how much leeway current privacy legislation gives choice architects to influence users’ choice with regard to cookies. We hypothesized that choice architecture affects the user’s decision of whether to accept or decline cookies and conducted an experiment to test the hypothesis. In our experiment, two different cookie banner designs were tested on the website of the IT company ADDvision A/S. The cookie banner designs employed choice architecture elements including salience, effort, and framing to investigate the effect of choice architecture on users’ decision to accept cookies. The changes in choice
architecture resulted in a 84.9% difference in cookie acceptance rate between the two banners. As such, our experiment strongly suggests that choice architects can influence users’ decision with regard to cookie acceptance by changing the choice architecture of cookie banners. As such, our findings confirm those of previous research that people are not rational, and that a user will not always choose in accordance with his preferences. Furthermore, we conducted an analysis of 90 real-world cookie banners to investigate whether the identified gap in legislation regarding choice architecture is exploited by companies. Our findings from this analysis showed that the vast majority of the companies currently do not comply with EU legislation. In addition, the use of choice architecture to ensure consent is widespread and often even more manipulative than the choice architecture applied in our experiment.
Our findings inform legislators on the importance of regulating choice architecture in order to ensure actual control over personal information. This should be considered before implementing the new ePrivacy Regulation. Merely requiring companies to provide full information is not enough to ensure actual control over personal information. For the time being, a lack of regulation on choice architecture results in companies being able to nudge users to consent to the collection of personal data. Legislators should, thus, consider the insights from our study along with previous research in order to ensure that users’ privacy is protected.
As such, the behavioural insights to implement effective limits on online tracking are available. The question that remains is: is the EU ready to employ these insights and legislate on choice
architecture?
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APPENDICES
Appendix A - Cookie details in layered form
Appendix B - Average consent rates for weekdays
Figure 20: Average consent rates for weekdays during the four-week period
Appendix C - Time of interaction
Appendix D - Classification of cookie banners
Industry Non-compliant Compliant - Accept Compliant neutral Banks
HSBC (U.K.) x
Deutsche Bank (Germany) x
BNP Paribas (France) x
Santander (Spain) x
ING Groep (Netherlands) x
Nordea x
Danske Bank x
Uni Credit (Italy) x
UBS (Switzerland) x
KBC (Belgium) x
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
00.00 01.00 02.00 03.00 04.00 05.00 06.00 07.00 08.00 09.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 15.00 16.00 17.00 18.00 19.00 20.00 21.00 22.00 23.00
Percentage of visitors
Hour of the day
Website visitors during the day
Mobile/tablet Desktop/laptop
Insurance companies
Allianz Group (Germany) x
AXA (France) x
Generali (Italy) x
Zurich Insurance Group (Switzerland) Prudential (U.K.)
AEGON (Netherlands) x
MAPFRE (Spain) x
XL Catlin (Ireland) x
Ageas (Belgium) x
Vienna Insurance Group (Austria) x
Airlines
Lufthansa (Germany) x
Ryanair (Ireland) x
British Airways (U.K.) x
Iberia (Spain) x
Air France (France) x
KLM (Netherlands) x
Easyjet (U.K.) x
Wizz Air (Hungary) x
SAS (Sweden) x
Norwegian (Norway) x
Fashion
Louis Vuitton (LVMH, France) x
Nike (USA) x
Zara (Inditex, Spain) x
Dior (France) x
Gucci (Kering, France) x Hermés (France)
Cartier (Richemont, Switzerland) x
Adidas (Germany) x
Oakley (Luxottica, Italy)
H&M (Sweden) x
Energy
Royal Dutch Shell (Netherlands) x
BP (U.K. x
Total (France) x
E.ON (Germany) x
ENI (Italy) x
Siemens Gamesa (Spain) x
Equinor (Norway) x
Vestas (Denmark) x
Ørsted (Denmark) x
Glencore (Switzerland) x
Automotive
Volkswagen ( VW Group, Germany) x
Renault (France) x
Ford (USA) x
Peugeot (PSA Group, France) x
Opel (PSA Group, France) x Mercedes Benz (Germany) x
BMW (Germany) x
Skoda (VW Group, Germany) x
Audi (VW Group, Germany) x
Toyota (Japan) x
Beauty
L'oreal (France) x
Nivea (Germany) x
Lancome (France) x
Dove (Unilever, Netherlands) x Gillette (Procter & Gamble, USA) x
Estée Lauder (USA) x
Schwarzkopf (Henkel, Germany) x L'Occitane en Provence (France) x Neutrogena (Johnson & Johnson, USA)
Chanel (France) x
Consumer electronics Apple (USA)
Samsung (South Korea) x
Nokia (Finland) x
Dell (USA) x
Sony (Japan) x
Panasonic (Japan) x
Hewlett-Packard (USA) x
Toshiba (Japan) x
Fujitsu (Japan) x
LG (South Korea) x
Software and computer services
Google (Alphabet, USA) x
Amazon (USA) x
Facebook (USA) x
Netflix (USA) x
Twitter (USA) x
Microsoft (USA) x
Spotify (Sweden) x
Zalando (Germany) x
Adobe Systems (USA) x
Alibaba x
Total 74 9 1
88,10% 10,71% 1,19%
Appendix E – Real-life cookie banners
1. Banks
HSBC - 17.04.19
Deutsche Bank - 17.04.19
BNP Paribas - retrieved 17.04.19
Santander - 17.04.19
ING Groep - 17.04.19
Nordea - 17.04.19
Danske Bank - 17.04.19
Uni Credit - 17.04.19
UBS - 17.04.19
KBC - 17.04.19
2. Insurance
Allianz Group (Germany)
AXA (France) 23.04.19
Generali (Italy) 23.04.19
Zurich Insurance Group (Switzerland) 23.04.19 No banner
Prudential (U.K.) 23.04.19 No banner
AEGON (Netherlands) 23.04.19
MAPFRE (Spain) 23.04.19
XL Catlin (Ireland) 23.04.19
Ageas (Belgium) 23.04.19
Vienna Insurance Group (Austria) 23.04.19
3. Airlines
Lufthansa (Germany) 23.04.19
Ryanair (Ireland) 23.04.19
British Airways (U.K.) 23.04.19
Iberia (Spain) 23.04.19
Air France (France) 23.04.19
KLM (Netherlands) 23.04.19
Easyjet (U.K.) 23.04.19
Wizz Air (Hungary) 23.04.19
SAS (Sweden) 23.04.19
Norwegian (Norway) 23.04.19
4. Fashion
Louis Vuitton (France) 23.04.19
Nike (USA) 23.04.19
Zara (Inditex, Spain) 23.04.19
Dior (France) 23.04.19
Gucci (Kering, France) 23.04.19
Hermés (France) 23.04.19
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Cartier (Richemont, Switzerland) 23.04.19
Adidas (Germany) 23.04.19
Oakley (Luxottica, Italy) 23.04.19
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H&M (Sweden) 23.04.19
5. Energy
Royal Dutch Shell (Netherlands) 23.04.19
BP (U.K.) 23.04.19
Total (France) 23.04.19
E.ON (Germany) 23.04.19
ENI (Italy) 23.04.19
Siemens Gamesa (Spain) 23.04.19
Equinor (Norway) 23.04.19
Vestas (Denmark) 23.04.19
Ørsted (Denmark) 23.04.19
Glencore (Switzerland) 23.04.19
6. Automotive
Volkswagen (VW Group, Germany) 23.04.19
Renault (France) 23.04.19
Ford (USA) 23.04.19
Peugeot (PSA Group, France) 23.04.19
Opel (PSA Group, France) 23.04.19
Mercedes Benz (Germany) 23.04.19
BMW (Germany) 23.04.19
Skoda (VW Group, Germany) 23.04.19
Audi (VW Group, Germany) 23.04.19
Toyota (Japan) 23.04.19
7. Cosmetics
L'oreal (France) - 23.04.19
Nivea (Germany) - 23.04.19
Lancome (France) - 23.04.19
Dove (Unilever, Netherlands) - 23.04.19
Gillette (Procter & Gamble, USA) - 23.04.19
Estée Lauder (USA) - 23.04.19
Schwarzkopf (Henkel, Germany) - 23.04.19
L'Occitane en Provence (France) - 23.04.19
Neutrogena (Johnson & Johnson, USA) - 23.04.19
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Chanel (France) - 23.04.19
8. Consumer electronics
Apple (USA) - 29.04.2019 No cookie banner
Samsung (South Korea) - 29.04.2019
Nokia (Finland) - 29.04.2019
Dell (USA) - 29.04.2019
Sony (Japan) - 29.04.2019
Panasonic (Japan) - 29.04.2019
HP (USA) - 29.04.2019
Toshiba (Japan) - 29.04.2019
Fujitsu (Japan) - 29.04.2019
LG (South Korea) - 29.04.2019
9. Software and computer services
Google (Alphabet, USA) - 29.04.2019
Amazon (USA) - 29.04.2019
Facebook (USA) - 29.04.2019
Netflix (USA) - 29.04.2019
Twitter (USA) - 29.04.2019
Microsoft (USA) - 29.04.2019
Spotify (Luxembourg) - 29.04.2019
Zalando (Germany) - 29.04.2019
Adobe Systems (USA) - 29.04.2019