The importance of play

Play was chosen in this study as the control condition (see section 3.1) due to its relevance to the young age of the children. Play is so important for optimal child development that it has been recognized by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights as a right of every child, whatever their background, religion or family structure (Ginsburg et al., 2006). There is an abundance of literature on play. This section will offer only a brief glimpse into that vast topic.

The literature that deals with the importance of play covers a variety of different approaches (e.g., Hughes, 1991; van Hoorn, Nourot, Scales, & Alward, 2007), such as:

• The cognitive-development approach of Piaget (represented also by Jerome Bruner and Brian Sutton-Smith), which focuses on what children are doing with objects at the point where they start to use an object for another purpose rather than how it is usually used in daily life;

• The psychoanalytic approach (represented by Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud, and Erikson), which focuses on those feelings that are expressed during play as well as on the healing effect of play;

• The educational approach (represented by educators like Farbel and Montessori), which focuses on the purposes that play can be used for and not on the reasons for children’s play.

Play is easy to recognize but very difficult to define (Bergen, 1988, pp. 11-13).

The increase in play research has led to some progress in defining play. The Department for Culture, Media, and Sport (DCMS), UK, 2004 defined it as “what children and young people do when they follow their own ideas, in their own way and for their own reasons“. Among the many attempts to define play and the differences in opinions, Rubin, Fein, and Vandenberg (1983) characterize play by six dispositional factors. The first four are necessary to the definition of play:

• Intrinsic motivation: Motivation for play comes from within the individual, and activities are pursued for their own sake.

• Process over product: Children’s attention in play is focused on the activity rather than on its goals. The absence of pressure to achieve a goal frees the children and allows them more flexibility.

• Organism rather than stimulus dominated: Play, unlike exploration, is guided by the organism-dominated question “What can I do with this object?”

while exploration is guided by the stimulus-dominated question “What is this object and what can it do?” Play occurs when the objects are familiar and it serves to interest the child and maintain a particular level of arousal” (p. 699).

• Non-literality: Internal reality takes precedence over external reality.

Therefore, new meanings are given to objects and actions are performed differently from when they occur in non-play settings. This “as if” stance toward reality allows children to ignore here-and-now constraints and experiment with new possibilities.

In addition, Rubin et al. (1983) indicate two other characteristics of play that are not necessary to its definition: Freedom from externally imposed rules, and active engagement. These two exclude two important forms of play: games with rules and daydreaming. The authors explain that certain games do involve following pre-established rules but in play, participants can change the rules according to their choice, and thus freedom from external rules is maintained.

During the present century, most of the theorists who write about play indicate the possible benefits of play to children’s development. In the last decades there has been a considerable increase in the number of research studies that investigated the relationship between play and child development (Johnson, Christie, & Yawkey, 1987). Kransor and Pepler (as cited in Rubin, 1980) presented three basic views of the relationship between play and developmental skills:

1. Play reflects the developmental level of the child and, therefore, can be used as a diagnostic tool.

2. Play provides an opportunity to practice skills.

3. Play is a causal agent in developmental change.

Play is essential to development because it contributes to the cognitive, physical, social, and emotional well being of children and youth. (Ginsburg et al., 2006).

Play is a vital factor for healthy brain development and is the vehicle through which young children become involved in the world around them. It allows them to learn by exploring things, taking risks, meeting challenges and engaging in problem solving. Play calls upon the children to hone their language skills, their symbolic thought, as well as the ability to plan, organize and make decisions. In play, the stimulation is particularly valuable for children with special needs (van Hoorn et al., 2007).

Play can be used as a vehicle for expressing emotion, ideas and fantasy, channeling aggression, learning to modulate and regulate emotion, practicing story-telling and resolving problems and conflicts. It is usually characterized by pleasure and enjoyment. Even if it is accompanied by apprehension and fear, it seems to have a pleasurable quality for children. They can repeat the same experience several times and creatively work out their fears through role playing and dramatic play with peers or adults caregivers. As a result, they gain confidence in their ability to face the more complex world problems as they grow up.

Play that is not directed by adults is an important element that develops the child’s ability to share, negotiate and resolve conflicts and to learn self-advocacy skills.

Children’s development is critically mediated by appropriate, affective relationships with loving and consistent caregivers as they relate to children through play. The interactions that occur through play may provide the warmth and guidance that enhances communications and help build long lasting relationships. The parents are then offered an ideal opportunity to engage fully with their children and to gain a fuller understanding of their perspective. In addition, for those children who are less verbal, play may provide an avenue with alternative possibilities for self expression (Ginsburg et al., 2006, Russ, 2004).

The two conditions in this study, play and music, are described by van der Linde (1999), who refers to play and music as related activities which are both important for the child’s cognitive and emotional development as a well-rounded adult. Play and music are important vehicles for-

• Developing mental capacity and intellect and forming the basis of language building;

• Helping the child to master his/her physical self, which results in improved

self-confidence and thus leads to a better self-image;

• Developing the affective aspects by enabling children to express feelings and relieve tension in an acceptable way;

• Developing social roles;

• Developing creativity.

The author concludes that play and music have endless possibilities and potential for early childhood (see also Bunt, 1994, pp. 96-98).

Further theoretical perspectives and opinions on play can be found in Casey, 2005; Isenberg & Jalongo, 1993; Klugman & Smilansky, 1990; Pitcher & Schultz, 1983; Riddick, 1982; Singr & Singer, 1990. Van Hoorn et al., (2007) present several key resources on play at the end of each chapter in their book as well as an extensive bibliography.