T HEORETICAL I MPLICATIONS

Finally, the symbolic value experienced by Swapfiets users is related to the environmental and altruistic motives of consumption. The participants of the research were aware of the severity of contemporary environmental issues like global warming and pollution. However, for many, their decision to use Swapfiets was based on more egoistic reasons like price or convenience. They argued that using a bike for urban mobility has a positive impact on the environment, and they feel right about that and want to show others that they care about the planet. The participants seemed to be familiar and empathetic with PSS like Swapfiets and believe that leasing something instead of owning it is something positive that helps reducing waste or the unnecessary use of resources. However, those facts were not the main drivers of their decision of using Swapfiets.

The main research question has been answered by exposing the different perceived values found on the experience of leasing a bicycle. Moreover, regarding the two sub-questions, it has been found that the perceived hedonic and symbolic values are the ones fostering the consumers’ self-identity projects and their community links with others. These issues will be further explained in the next chapter.

owners. As Belk (2007) argued, self-extension does not necessarily have to be related with

“having”, but also with “doing”. Furthermore, the concept of self-extension can be associated with intangible objects like services or experiences, and with accessing instead of owning.

The group of millennials who participated in this research seem to have moved toward less possessiveness and materialism. That is reflected by the fact that they feel like the owners of their bikes even if they are accessing them instead of purchasing them. Some authors have argued that with the rise of the Internet era where consumption can be completely intangible, new business models and consumption practices have emerged (Belk, 2014).

Swapfiets, as a PSS business model based on bicycle access, is an example of those consumption practices that, according to Belk (2014) are part of a “post-ownership”

economy strongly intertwined with the concept of sharing.

Additionally, millennials are considered “digital natives” (Bess & Bartolini, 2011), and that has had an impact on the way they experience consumption in comparison to other generations. Therefore, they are a segment that is more open to non-traditional forms of consumption. In the case of Swapfiets users, the participants mentioned that the main reasons why they chose leasing over ownership of a bike were the utilitarian and financial values of the service. Moreover, it is really interesting how they seemed to be paying for a service – convenience, security, swapping, etc. – rather than the product itself, and it is there where they perceive the value for money.

Swapfiets is a PSS that has emerged as a consequence of the dematerialization of the economy (Mont, 2002). The company provides customers with a service of maintenance and unlimited individual access to a bike in exchange for a monthly fee. Nevertheless, there is no transfer of ownership from business to consumers, so they do not get property rights.

Interestingly, interviewees actually appreciated the fact that they are not the owners of the bikes since the responsibility which comes with outright ownership (for example if the bicycle gets stolen) is lower. However, they still have autonomy and exclusive access to their bikes as well as the repair service available should they require it. Hence, the participants seem to have found a balance between autonomy and responsibility that make them feel comfortable.

When participants were asked about bike ownership, their answers focused on feelings of responsibility. They were responsible for finding another bike if their one was stolen, and responsible for finding a shop to repair it if it gets broken. These are costs, in terms of money and time, that Swapfiets users insure against by leasing their bikes. On the other hand, when they talked about renting a bike through Donkey Republic, they felt they would miss the feelings of autonomy and anonymity, as they would have to continually share the bike with other people. Participants viewed that lack of the sense of ownership as a negative feature of Donkey Republic’s service when it relates to a product they use almost every day.

By contrast, when leasing a bike with Swapfiets, they didn’t feel like the owners of the bikes, but did enjoy some sense of personal responsibility and a positive relationship with the bike.

Arguably the participants had found a perfect setup, whereby they were able to feel some of the emotional benefits of ownership but without any of the real-world responsibilities attached to actual ownership.

In relation to the first research sub-question, “What are the roles of the different perceived values in the consumer’s self-identity construction projects?”, Arnould and Thompson (2018) mentioned that the consumers´ identity projects were the different symbols, practices, objects or scripts people use to claim their particular identity position.

In the present study, it has been found that consumers, through their experiences with Swapfiets, are showing to others that they care about the environment. It is essential to mention that they do not seem to make their decision based on those facts; however, once they started using their bikes, they became aware of the impact of their actions, and they feel good about that.

As Hwang and Griffihts (2017) mentioned, Millennials have a positive attitude towards trying new ways of consumption, and they are aware of the fact that leasing something is reducing the resources used on production and the waste, as well as the zero-emissions benefits that using a bike implies. Therefore, they unconsciously seem to be more predisposed to lease things instead of owning them. In terms of self-identity construction, the symbolic value for consumers here is related to the use of a bike rather than the use of Swapfiets specifically.

However there exists an “openness” to other non-traditional ways of consumption, which is also part of consumers’ ongoing self-identity projects.

For instance when interviewees were asked about renting clothes they all mentioned that they liked the idea, and even if they did not feel completely comfortable they would be willing to try it, thus proving Yin et al.’s argument that when consumers perceived specific values as important, the antecedents to attitudes and intentions have an impact on their decisions (Yin, Qian, & Singhapakdi, 2018). That is also related to political consumerism (Bardhi &

Eckhardt, 2012), in which consumers use their consumption habits to promote their ideological interests in sustainability.

Additionally, it was found interesting how the participants considered themselves cost-oriented and were proud of their choice of using Swapfiets. They kept mentioning that they would be spending more money on their bicycle’s maintenance and deciding to use Swapfiets for a small fee made them feel smart. Therefore, rather than feeling wrong about not owning something, they felt right about saving costs and shared that with other people by recommending Swapfiets.

The second research sub-question was associated with the roles of the different perceived values and their relation to the consumers’ feeling of community. Cova (1977) introduced the concept of “linking value”, in which consumers, rather than just being motivated by the functional aspects of consumption, give importance to those values that promote social interactions with other individuals and cultures. This linking value is strongly related to the hedonic values mentioned in the analysis of results. Most of the participants in this study come from different cultures, but they all agree on the fact that they love the Danish Cycling Culture that characterizes this country. Moreover, they mentioned that using their bikes, in addition to the other accrued benefits, made them feel part of this wider culture. It is interesting to mention that they do not directly associate that feeling of community with either leasing, renting or owning their bikes. However, the fact that the cycling culture is so rooted in Denmark makes them have more choices regarding how they want to access or buy their bikes.

When interviewees were asked about their feelings towards Swapfiets as a brand, participants mentioned that they do not feel a strong link with other users – a “Blue Tire Community” – of the brand, but that there is a positive feeling when they meet other members. Hence, the feeling of “we-ness” mentioned by Arnould and Thomson (2018) is somewhat related to a feeling of belonging to the cycling community in Denmark. In terms of connection with the company itself, respondents mentioned that they feel some attachment derived from the ease of use, convenience, service and staff friendliness.

Nonetheless, they do not consider that as an emotional connection with the brand but rather as satisfaction about the service the company offers. Finally, as a participant mentioned during his interview, there is a movement related to the use of Swapfiets (especially around young international students), and they felt part of that movement.

In conclusion, we propose a conceptual model that summarizes the findings of this study.

The model is based on the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) proposed by Bandura (1977), who mentioned that behaviour is not just an outcome but also a determinant of other factors.

As the author stated, “…human functioning is explained in terms of a model of triadic reciprocality in which behaviour, cognitive and other personal factors, and environmental events all operate as interacting determinants of each other” (Bandura, 1986; p. 18).

Through the present study, it has been aimed to explore the different perceived values associated with access-based consumption of PSSs. The findings showed that the primary perceived values are economical and functional, and those are the ones directly affecting the decision-making process. That means that Swapfiets users mainly decided to start using the leasing based on the low price they had to pay and the convenience of the service.

However, once the consumers started using the PSSs, they seemed to extract hedonic and symbolic values from the access-based experience, which helped them develop a community feeling and their self-identity projects – for example feeling part of the Danish Cycling Culture as well as establishing a connection with the company itself or other consumers. Additionally, the experience helped customers demonstrate to others (virtue signalling) that they care about the environment, which made them feel good.

Those perceived hedonic and symbolic values that are extracted from consumption have an impact on future decisions regarding access-based consumption, use of the sharing economy or other types of sustainable consumption. Many participants were already familiar with car-renting. That prior knowledge of and understanding of alternative options to ownership could have an indirect impact on the process of considering the different choices they had.

Guided by the SCT from Bandura (1977) and Phipps et al. (2013), who applied the SCT framework to sustainable consumption, a conceptual model is that exposes the relationship between different perceived values and the access-based consumption experience is proposed.

Fig. 5 – Conceptual Model based on the SCT5

5 Self-Created model based on Bandura (1997) and Phipps et al. (2013)