8. Conclusions
8.1 Limitations and future research
Our proposed framework for defining, measuring and enhancing the brand equity has been developed in order to embrace all the major aspects contributing to the definition of a sports club brand, focusing primarily on football. The integrated concept of brand proposed by Mühlbacher and Hemetsberger (2006) has been adopted in order to delimitate the scope of our study, in particular in terms of target (the brand interest group of football fans) and considered associations (associations constituting brand meaning for football fans and related to brand touchpoints the club can control or influence).
Different typologies of fans. The analysis of our survey’s respondents highlighted the existence of differences among football fans: indicators such as levels of involvement and loyalty, geographical provenance (local, domestic or “satellite”) or number of supported teams could be adopted (and combined) to identify different segments of customers. In our survey, football fans were asked the same range of questions about their favourite team regardless of whether they were local, domestic or satellite supporters (with the exception of the ones relating to “Pride and Place”, administered only to the ones who declared to support a team from their city or region). However, it is expectable that different types of fans could have different sets of brand associations and, in addition, different importance ratings for them – e.g. satellite supporters may give more importance to the athletic success of a team, whereas local ones, instead, could have stronger cues in terms of Pride and place (Branscombe and Wann, 1991).
The implications of the existence of diverse segments of fans with different characteristics are twofold:
• Alongside the proposed use of the BAV® model (i.e. to measure brand equity of a club and compare it with other ones), a BAV® PowerGrid could be implemented for a single team, segmenting results by typologies of supporters (e.g. combining different characteristics as high/medium/low involvement; local/domestic/satellite; etc.).
• However, it should be taken into consideration whether the same set of associations and weights can be applied tout court for all different segments.
108 Results show that a number of football fans, especially in countries like Denmark (whose national league is not one of the top ones in Europe), are supporting at least two teams, with one mainly competing in a foreign championship. In our survey, those fans have been asked to answer only about the team they support the most.
However, they would hold associations towards the brands of their second and/or third supported teams as well. Furthermore, these fans could result as local, domestic or satellite supporters of these teams (and, as mentioned before, they could thus have different sets of associations and importance scales). Moreover, further researches could be undertaken in order to investigate whether the nature of second or third-supported team results in differences in terms of fan identification, as well as other sets of associations and/or importance scales.
Relevance. The reasons leading to the exclusion of the Relevance dimension and Team Knowledge associations from the adapted version of the BAV® model have been discussed in chapter 6 and in the conclusions. Nevertheless, the heterogeneity of the sample and the high correlation with the ImpMe indicator do not imply that the three excluded associations (i.e. Fan Identification, Pride and Place and Team Knowledge) are not significant indicators in the measurement of brand equity. For future research, these components may be re-added while developing a BAV® for a single brand, as fans could be segmented according to their involvement levels, hence overcoming the issue of heterogeneity.
Questions. Survey questions were created with the aim of giving a general overview on brand associations for football clubs, irrespective of teams and typologies of fans. Nevertheless, the transposition of brand associations in the four BAV® dimensions is highly dependent on which specific aspect each question is addressing. For instance, the three answers concerning Players were used for calculating both Esteem (adequate level; alignment with club values) and Differentiation (presence of star players). However, other aspects concerning players can affect other BAV® dimensions: e.g. the presence of a “fellow countryman”, a
“native” player has been found to be a primary reason for Asian fans to support an European team (Chadwick, 2007), generating therefore Relevance for these satellite supporters. Accordingly, the transposition of associations and questions to the BAV®
dimensions should not be considered as a permanent framework, but it needs to be tailored according to questions and scope of the research.
109 Social identity. Lin and Lin (2008) proposed that main factors affecting sports fans’
behaviour include psychological aspects, emotional identification, social acceptance, brand symbolism and self-image. Individuals develop a social identity as they categorise themselves and others into social groups in order to make sense of their social environment. Moreover, an individual will tend to think of his/her group as superior to other ones (Lin and Lin, 2008). Accordingly, supporters might reckon all the team associations and their fan community as the best ones, which eventually can create bias in their attitudes. Underwood et al. (2001) stated that social identity is the emotional connection between the consumer and the service brand. The authors proposed that heightened identification with a sports team should result in higher levels of brand equity for the team: the greater the degree of social identification, the greater the level of customer-based brand equity.
Besides the high levels of loyalty and identification archetypal of the industry (Bridgewater, 2010), social group biases and a strong emotional connections with the brand could be plausible explanations for the concentration of all the analysed brands in (or in the proximity of) the top-right quadrant of the BAV® PowerGrid.
Size of fan base. “Fans are the mainstay of football. Without fans […] there would be no revenue from match attendance, merchandise sales, broadcast revenue, or value for corporate organisations that sponsor teams” (Bridgewater, 2010 – p. 6).
Not surprisingly, one of the main priorities emerged from the FC København case study is increasing the number of supporters and their loyalty. Gieske and Forato (2004) observed a significant relationship between brand value and the revenue generated by the brand; hence, the more supporters an organisation has, the greater the potential to generate revenues and increase its brand equity. Whereas the connection between revenues and number of fans (customers) is evident, further studies could be carried to consider whether the size of a club’s fan base can also affect the consumer-based brand equity.
Generalisation. The reasons for supporting a sports team could be similar among different sports (Koo, 2009), such as football, volleyball, basketball, rugby, hockey, etc. Nevertheless, brand associations and their relative importance may vary depending among different disciplines, competition levels, countries and cultures.
110 Our research targeted football supporters of European teams, due to the prominence and established commercial success of that sport in the continent (Bridgewater, 2010). In order to expand our framework to other sports and/or other geographical areas, re-examining the model according to those perspectives would be necessary.
The acknowledgement of the limitations of this research allows us to identify several directions for the study of brand equity in the football industry and, in general, in team sports. The existence of several possibilities to segment the category of football fans opens the doors for deepening the study of brand equity antecedents and how those may vary according to different typologies of consumers. Although fans are undoubtedly a major foundation of the success of a sports brand, other types of customers and, overall, stakeholders can be as well significant in the determination of its equity, and should be thus taken into consideration. Finally, the predictable existence of differences among specific sports, contexts and cultures reaffirms the necessity of future research projects to expand the scope of our enquiry to the study of brand equity from the domain of football to different team sports.
111
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