How learner motivation is studied

Integrating with mainstream theoretical perspectives and developments, the study of motivation in language learning has evolved as a largely independent research field in last five decades, and has gone through three theoretical phases: (Dörnyei, 2005;

Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011):

1. “The social psychological period (1959-1990)—characterised by the work of Robert Gardner and his associates in Canada.

2. The cognitive-situated period (during the 1990s)—characterised by work drawing on cognitive theories in educational psychology.

3. The process-oriented period (the turn of the century)—characterised by an interest in motivational change.” (p. 39-40)

The major studies on learner motivation in language learning were initiated by Gardner and Lambert, two psychologists from Canada, in the late 1950s. Their work plays a dominant role in the social psychological period and highlights a cluster of social psychological variables/components, such as the aforementioned integrative and instrumental orientations and attitudes toward target language speakers and the target culture.

The cognitive-situated period expanded (not discarded) the existing theoretical motivation framework through integrating cognitive theories and other perspectives, such as expectancy-value theories, goal theories, self-efficacy theory, cognitive developmental theory and sociocultural theory (Crookes & Schmidt, 1991; Tremblay & Gardner, 1995; Dörnyei, 1994; Williams & Burden, 1997). Prior to this, researchers had paid more attention to the strong impact of learners’

immediate learning environment on learner motivation. For example, Dörnyei (1994) includes a learning situation level component (the course, the teacher and the group) in his framework, and Williams and Burden’s (1997) social constructivist model emphasises that an individual’s motivation is subject to social and contextual influences, including culture, context, social situation, other people and the individual’s interactions with those people. Furthermore, focusing on the task (from task-based teaching and learning) as the unit of analysis, researchers started to investigate task motivation in this period (Julkunen, 1989, 2001; Dörnyei, 2002). Dörnyei (2002) offers a more complex view of task motivation by emphasising the dynamic nature of motivation in the task engagement process. The dynamic view of motivation has since led the research into the process-oriented period.

In the process-oriented period, researchers made an effort to analyse the dynamics of motivation change at either the micro level (e.g., task motivation) or the more macro level (e.g., during a course of study over a person’s learning history or lifespan) (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011). By focusing on time, Ushioda (1998) develops a theoretical framework of motivation from a temporal perspective, which shows that a learner at a beginning stage is motivated by positive experiences more than goals, while a learner at a potential later stage is more goal-directed. Others focus on motivational changes, action sequences or motivational influences (Dörnyei & Ottó, 1998; Dörnyei & Csizér, 2002; Gardner, Masgoret, Tennant, &

Mihic, 2004).

This study has benefitted from the results found in these three periods, especially the second and third. Results from the first social psychological period not only provided a foundation for the field, but also influenced the ways in which one conducts research in the motivation field. Within the first period, motivation was conceptualised as an affective variable implicated in language learning achievement (Ushioda, 1994). To test and verify the contributory role of motivation in language learning, learner motivation has been expressed as a mathematical index, numerically compatible in correlational and multivariate statistical analyses with other variable indices (e.g., achievement, classroom participation, persistence in learning and use of strategies, etc.) (Ushioda, 1994, 2001). For a long time, the study of learner motivation for language learning evolved in a quantitative research paradigm, and the learners’ voices were silenced in statistical analyses.

Nevertheless, researchers have also explored a more qualitative approach to motivation to complement the longstanding quantitative tradition of research, and

learners’ voices now receive more attention (Ushioda, 1994, 2001; Paper 3 in this study). Furthermore, a longitudinal mixed methods approach has been explored in various studies (Cai & Zhu, 2012; Busse & Walter, 2013; Paper 4, 2015) as the researchers sought to address the time- and context-sensitive nature of motivational attributes.

In general, the research on motivation is shifting focus more and more to the complex dynamic approaches, the immediate classroom setting and the actual learning situation, even as the methodology used to study motivation develops from a quantitative paradigm to a more qualitative or mixed-method approach. These motivation-focused researchers have focused primarily on the teaching and learning of English as a second language. Only recently, has the topic of learner motivation in CFL started to gain attention among educators and researchers (Wen, 1997; Cai

& Zhu, 2012; this study). It is believed that the increasing understanding of learner motivation can improve classroom pedagogy and support the learning of Chinese language and culture, and in return classroom pedagogy (i.e., teaching and learning methods) can influence learner motivation in the learning process (Ginsberg &

Wlodkowski, 2009; Dörnyei, 1998; Ushioda, 1998; Kikuchi, 2009).

3.3. TEACHING AND LEARNING METHOD AS AN INFLUENCIAL FACTOR FOR LEARNER MOTIVATION

It is argued that learner motivation can be affected by contextual influences, such as instructional context (e.g., task and materials design, evaluation practices, grouping structures) and social and cultural influences (e.g., teachers, peer group, school, family, culture and society) (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011). As an important part of classroom practice, the teaching and learning method are closely related to some elements of the aforementioned contextual influences on learner motivation, such as task and materials design, grouping structures, the teacher and the peer group.

Furthermore, researchers also find that the teaching and learning method is one of the main factors that relates to learners’ lack of motivation (Dörnyei, 1998;

Ushioda, 1998; Kikuchi, 2009; Falout, Elwood, & Hood, 2009). Both Kikuchi (2009) and Falout, Elwood and Hood’s (2009) studies directly point out that the traditional teacher-fronted grammar-translation approach has lain at the root of motivational problems in their contexts, which is similar to the problem identified at the beginning of this study (see the opening section My journey from China to Denmark). When the use of an inappropriate teaching and learning method becomes an issue for learner motivation, how can one change the unsatisfactory situation and support learner motivation? One of the possibilities may be to explore alternative methods that are motivating and context-appropriate.

In relation to designing motivating methods for everyday teaching in the classroom, motivation researchers have suggested many motivational strategies/techniques for practitioners (Oxford & Shearin, 1994; Williams & Burden, 1997; Dörnyei &

Csizér, 1998; Dörnyei, 1994, 2001). For example, Dörnyei (2001) lists 35 key strategies to make the teaching motivating, such as finding ways to raise the learner’s intrinsic interest in the learning process, presenting and administering tasks in a motivating way, promoting cooperation among the learners, actively promoting learner autonomy and so on. Each of these strategies includes more specific sub-strategies. To assist teachers in developing a motivation-conscious teaching approach, Dörnyei and Csizér (1998) propose a set of “Ten Commandments” as core strategies:

1. “Set a personal example with your own behaviour.

2. Create a pleasant, relaxed atmosphere in the classroom.

3. Present the tasks properly.

4. Develop a good relationship with the learners.

5. Increase the learners’ linguistic self-confidence.

6. Make the language classes interesting.

7. Promote learner autonomy.

8. Personalise the learning process.

9. Increase the learners’ goal-orientedness.

10. Familiarise learners with the target language culture.” (p. 215)

Other researchers propose other strategies, which have provided practitioners (including me) rich ideas of how to motivate learners in the classroom. However, these strategies all focus on a particular technical level, which has made it difficult to incorporate as many of them as possible into the practice. There exists a need to find a general idea to guide the teaching practice, such as deciding which approach (teacher-centred approach or student-centred approach) to use in the teaching and learning.

3.3.1. SUPPORTING LEARNER MOTIVATION: FROM A