Implications for policy, business and other practitioners

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that increased psychological distance leads to more higher-level construal of objects and situations, and therefore to the activation of more generalized and decontextualized high-level principles such as moral principles. The research on this topic, however, is inconclusive so far and needs further elaboration in the future (Eyal, Liberman, & Trope, 2014; Gong & Medin, 2014; Žeželj & Jokić, 2014). Our results are in line with previous research that showed self-investment to underpin the positive relationship between IWAH and personal norms (Reese et al., 2015). Equally, Reese et al. (2015) showed that the self-investment component could be experimentally manipulated, which in turn had an influence on the willingness to donate for a global charity in an experimental setting. Together, these results point towards the potential role of especially self-investment for environmentally friendly behaviours, and future studies should clarify the role of proximizing strategies as well as possible applications.

It should be mentioned that we tested the proposed CADM relationships across different European countries and the US, and therefore across similar yet different cultures. Most important in this context is that a test for measurement invariance showed that all items represented the same factors across countries. Moreover, the proposed relationships were equal;

however, the levels of model variables were different across countries. While our possibilities to unambiguously explain these differences are limited, because we have not measured further country characteristics potentially responsible for the differences, we can still draw selected conclusions for practical implications.

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long lifetimes, which would decrease planned obscolecence and therefore new purchases, or economic instruments such as higher taxation of environmentally unsound products, e.g. luxury clothing items or items not belonging to a basic range of clothing. In the past, for example, the introduction of a charge for single-use plastic carrier bags was an effective way to reduce consumption of such bags, and support for the policy was high before and after implementation (Poortinga, Whitmarsh, & Suffolk, 2013). Clothing consumption of course profoundly differs from plastic bag purchase, but the results point towards a potential acceptance of policies to reduce consumption among consumer. Policies contain important information for consumers with regard to which behaviours are valued and rewarded in society, and therefore guide consumers’ behaviour (Jackson, 2005). This symbolic influence of governments and policy, above and beyond tangible tax revenues or product bans, should not be underestimated. Policies aiming at reducing consumption, as compared to constant policy efforts to spur economic growth and increase consumption could be a valuable avenue to communicate coherent messages to consumers considering the urgency of mitigating climate change.

Furthermore, these results are positive for clothing businesses that aim at selling less, high-quality, long-lasting, if also more expensive clothing products. Clothing consumption never can nor should stop completely, and the future of clothing hopefully will lie with such businesses that appreciate the craft of clothing production and communicate the value of clothing to their consumers, thereby making one step towards leading a change of consumer values. Equally, the results invite big fast fashion retailers to reflect on their current business model.

At the same time, we find social norms to reduce clothing consumption indeed perceived as low.

This can be due to two reasons. Either, participants did not like to admit that they are influenced by what others do or think they should do. Or, it is due to the current societal contexts and what Jackson (2016) refers to as the ‘iron cage of consumerism’. Sheer endless avenues for marketing and advertising new products are used by the clothing industry. They form another potential avenue for policy application. Conceivable could be regulations on areas where advertisement is allowed to be presented, e.g. limitations for public spaces, on advertisement content, e.g. legal prohibition of advertisement falsely relating intrinsic basic human needs such as happiness or friendship to consumer goods such as clothing, and advertisement target groups, e.g. special protection of young consumers.

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Other practitioners and interest groups, such as NGOs or environmental protection organisations, can furthermore support both businesses and policy makers. All practitioners with an interest in reducing consumption can use the results of this thesis to apply theory-based and evaluated communication strategies for encouraging reduced clothing consumption among the public. All three studies thereby provide valuable insights what such communication strategies should contain. With regard to the provision of information, our results are in line with Frick, Kaiser, and Wilson (2004) who find two types of knowledge related to conservation behaviour.

These are firstly, action knowledge, i.e. knowledge about the existence of behavioural alternatives that reduce environmental burdens, and secondly, effectiveness knowledge, i.e.

information about the effectiveness of this behaviour for mitigating problems. Our intervention offered both types of knowledge. It introduced a comparatively easy behaviour with environmental benefits, namely reducing consumption, and elucidated the general effectiveness of this behaviour in terms of water and energy savings. Following our results, however, a campaign limited to such information provision strategies can raise intentions to reduce clothing consumption but falls short in changing behaviour.

Practitioners should develop communication strategies that go one step further, e.g. asking consumers to define a specific reduction goal for a specific time period and committing to it.

Following this, the water and energy saving potential of the specific goal can be determined, which would make environmental benefits more tangible and personally relevant and therewith further support efficacy believes. A comprehensive strategy like described here can be perhaps implemented in contexts were a continuous contact with consumers is ensured, e.g. at schools.

Teachers looking at approaching complex topics such as globalisation, sustainability and consumer responsibility in realistic and practical ways might use the results of this thesis to develop classroom material for interdisciplinary projects.

Yet, the same principles still can possibly be implemented in a reduced version. Conceivable is a connection between large-scale informational campaigns often used by NGOs, such as WWF or Greenpeace, and further personalized information, e.g. on a corresponding website. The link is particularly easy when the information already is provided via the Internet, e.g. in the form of newsletters or advertisement. When providing information about environmental impacts of clothing production, information campaigns should at the same time provide information about behavioural alternatives, such as reducing consumption. They could furthermore invite to visit a

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website, were consumers can indicate how many items less they can imagine buying in a set time period. After providing feedback for the energy and water saving potential for this number of items, consumers should be consecutively asked to commit to these items as saving goal and obtain suggestions that can help them reach their goal.

Lastly, the results of the three-month follow up and their practical implications need reflection.

Participants of all intervention groups reduced their clothing consumption at the three-month follow up. We therefore cannot eliminate the possibility that simply counting the items purchased can be a successful strategy for reducing consumption. Future studies with a different set up for the control group are needed to further examine this possibility.