Nada Dabbagh
ABSTRACT
Problem Based Learning (PBL) has been shown to foster the development of critical thinking skills such as problem solving, analytic thinking, decision making, reasoning, argumentation, interpretation, synthesis, evaluation, collaboration, communication, and self-directed learning. However, there is wide variation in the literature as to how PBL should be implemented to foster critical thinking. This paper provides research-based guidelines for implementing PBL that focus on learning design principles and problem design principles to promote critical thinking. This includes consideration of the characteristics of ill-structured problems that frame learning in PBL and how these problems are presented to learners to ensure engagement in critical thinking. A three-phased mapping process that aligns PBL problem characteristics with PBL pedagogical principles to foster critical thinking skills is provided.
KEYWORDS: problem-based learning, critical thinking, problem solving, ill-structured problems, learning design, problem design, pedagogical principles
TYPE OF CONTRIBUTION: Practice-based abstract PRESENTATION FORMAT: Roundtable discussion
Critical thinking skills have consistently made the cut as desirable higher education student learning outcomes when government and consumer agencies call for education reforms that will ready graduates for professional and societal responsibilities (Koh, et al., 2015; Markle, et al., 2013). In a 2013 Educational Testing Services (ETS) report, Markle et al. identified critical thinking as one of seven key domains common to 21st century skills and defined critical thinking skills as “thinking critically, solving problems, synthesizing information, and sense-making” (p. 14). Additional established descriptors of critical thinking include “the ability to think deeply about an issue, consider evidence for and against a proposition, and apply reasoning skills and logical inquiry to arrive at conclusions” (Nargundkar, et al., 2014, p. 92). Further elaboration by Markle et al. (2013) describes critical thinking, problem solving, and decision making as “one’s ability to reason effectively, use systems thinking and evaluate evidence, solve problems, and clearly articulate the result of the inquiry and exhibit” (p. 14).
Fernandez, T. S. (2008). Cycles of Curriculum Change: Bridging Educators as Curriculum. The 8th Conference of the New Zealand Association of Bridging Educators, (pp. 30-45).
Holgaard, J., Guerra, A., Kolmos, A., & Petersen, L. (2017). Getting a hold on the problem in a problem-based learning environment. The International journal of engineering education, 33(3), 1070-1085.
Spliid, C. (2016). Discussions in PBL project-groups: construction of learning and managing. The International journal of engineering education, 32(1), 324-332.
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Yin Zhang, zhangyin30@outlook.com, China, Software College, Northeastern University (corresponding author)
Yuli Zhao, zhaoyl@swc.neu.edu.cn, China, Software College, Northeastern University Bin Zhang, zhangbin@mail.neu.edu.cn, China, Software College, Northeastern University Kening Gao, gkn@cc.neu.edu.cn, China, Computing Center, Northeastern University
Chunfang Zhou, chunfang618@gmail.com, Denmark, Institut for Planlægning, Aalborg Universitet
ALIGNING LEARNING DESIGN PRINCIPLES WITH PROBLEM DESIGN PRINCIPLES TO FOSTER CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN PBL
Nada Dabbagh
ABSTRACT
Problem Based Learning (PBL) has been shown to foster the development of critical thinking skills such as problem solving, analytic thinking, decision making, reasoning, argumentation, interpretation, synthesis, evaluation, collaboration, communication, and self-directed learning. However, there is wide variation in the literature as to how PBL should be implemented to foster critical thinking. This paper provides research-based guidelines for implementing PBL that focus on learning design principles and problem design principles to promote critical thinking. This includes consideration of the characteristics of ill-structured problems that frame learning in PBL and how these problems are presented to learners to ensure engagement in critical thinking. A three-phased mapping process that aligns PBL problem characteristics with PBL pedagogical principles to foster critical thinking skills is provided.
KEYWORDS: problem-based learning, critical thinking, problem solving, ill-structured problems, learning design, problem design, pedagogical principles
TYPE OF CONTRIBUTION: Practice-based abstract PRESENTATION FORMAT: Roundtable discussion
Critical thinking skills have consistently made the cut as desirable higher education student learning outcomes when government and consumer agencies call for education reforms that will ready graduates for professional and societal responsibilities (Koh, et al., 2015; Markle, et al., 2013). In a 2013 Educational Testing Services (ETS) report, Markle et al. identified critical thinking as one of seven key domains common to 21st century skills and defined critical thinking skills as “thinking critically, solving problems, synthesizing information, and sense-making” (p. 14). Additional established descriptors of critical thinking include “the ability to think deeply about an issue, consider evidence for and against a proposition, and apply reasoning skills and logical inquiry to arrive at conclusions” (Nargundkar, et al., 2014, p. 92). Further elaboration by Markle et al. (2013) describes critical thinking, problem solving, and decision making as “one’s ability to reason effectively, use systems thinking and evaluate evidence, solve problems, and clearly articulate the result of the inquiry and exhibit” (p. 14).
course to support critical thinking through writing. They challenged students with three different writing prompts on human rights, two of which did not require collaboration.
Additionally, different measures were used to assess critical thinking in these studies to include student perceptions, content knowledge, and problem solving knowledge.
Research has also revealed that while PBL results in improved critical thinking, a number of implementation challenges were detected. For example, Cavalho (2016) found that PBL teams struggled with defining and following team roles and emphasized the importance of training tutors in guiding team dynamics throughout the PBL experience. Wilder (2015) argued that PBL has a learning curve which requires student acceptance of their central role in the learning process and that longer interventions may be necessary for students to gain the necessary skills and attitudes to engage in PBL. Wedelin and Adawi (2015) suggest that students should be trained in problem solving skills before entering a PBL program so that they understand the power of learning by exploration and are ready to handle ill-structured problems. So what exactly are ill-structured problems and how are they designed or presented?
Jonassen (2011) defines ill-structured problems as problems that occur in the everyday world, are complex, emergent, and interdisciplinary, and have multiple solutions and solution paths. In other words, it would not (or should not) be possible for a student to develop a viable solution to an ill-structured problem on their own, nor would it be possible for students to solve such problems without a pedagogical expert’s facilitation. Additionally, it would not be possible to solve ill-structured problems in one problem solving cycle; rather, multiple problem solving cycles are needed to develop viable solutions.
In order to effectively implement PBL and ensure that critical thinking skills are fostered, the characteristics of ill-structured problems should be aligned with the pedagogical principles of PBL in a three-phased learning design approach. Table 1 illustrates how this can be done for phase 1, “problem posing and representation”. Due to space limitations, phase 2 (problem solving process) and phase 3 (problem resolution and reflection) will be described at the conference should this proposal be accepted for presentation.
While problem solving and decision making have been coupled with critical thinking in the 2013 ETS report, problem solving has its own prominence as a key cognitive process that must be cultivated to enable individuals to be productive members of society. Jonassen (2011) argued that problem solving is the most authentic and relevant learning activity that students can engage in, and that knowledge gained in the context of problem solving is better comprehended and retained, and therefore more usable and transferrable. Jonassen (2011) defined problem solving as a process that has two critical attributes: the ability to form a mental representation or mental model of the problem and the ability to test the mental model in order to generate a solution to the problem. As such, problem solving can be described as a heuristic process requiring the ability to form a hypothesis, find and sort information, think critically about information, ask questions, and reach a viable resolution or solution to the problem. In a 2012 National Research Council report, Pellegrino and Hilton found that the ability to solve problems is one of the most important 21st century skills sought by employers. Further elaboration on this skill resulted in the following descriptors: problem solving, creativity, innovation, critical thinking, analysis, reasoning, argumentation, interpretation, decision making, adaptive learning, or executive function (Clark & Mayer, 2016, p. 344).
It is clear from this brief overview that problem solving, decision making, and critical thinking are interdependent and not mutually exclusive skills. Rather, critical thinking can be perceived as an overarching or broad set of skills that encompass several competencies including problem solving and decision making. The question then becomes, how effective is PBL in supporting critical thinking skills? And, are there specific PBL processes or pedagogical principles that influence critical thinking skills more than others?
PBL has been shown to foster the development and improvement of critical thinking skills such as problem solving, analytic thinking, decision making, reasoning, argumentation, interpretation, synthesis, evaluation, collaboration, communication, and self-directed learning (Abrami et al., 2015; Loyens et al., 2015). In fact, since the origins of PBL, researchers (e.g., Barrows & Kelson, 1995) have consistently emphasized that the goals of PBL are to develop critical thinking skills and competencies necessary to operate effectively in professional and private life. However, what this research also demonstrates is that PBL implementation varies across disciplines and contexts making it difficult to replicate how these outcomes are realized. For example, Nargundkar et al.
(2014) used a guided PBL approach, dubbed reverse order textbook, in a college business course to promote critical thinking. Challenges were introduced prior to the content but students were aware that answers to these challenges were in the back of the textbook. This suggests that the challenges were well-defined with clear solutions and solution paths. Kumar and Refaei (2017) implemented PBL in an intermediate college composition
course to support critical thinking through writing. They challenged students with three different writing prompts on human rights, two of which did not require collaboration.
Additionally, different measures were used to assess critical thinking in these studies to include student perceptions, content knowledge, and problem solving knowledge.
Research has also revealed that while PBL results in improved critical thinking, a number of implementation challenges were detected. For example, Cavalho (2016) found that PBL teams struggled with defining and following team roles and emphasized the importance of training tutors in guiding team dynamics throughout the PBL experience. Wilder (2015) argued that PBL has a learning curve which requires student acceptance of their central role in the learning process and that longer interventions may be necessary for students to gain the necessary skills and attitudes to engage in PBL. Wedelin and Adawi (2015) suggest that students should be trained in problem solving skills before entering a PBL program so that they understand the power of learning by exploration and are ready to handle ill-structured problems. So what exactly are ill-structured problems and how are they designed or presented?
Jonassen (2011) defines ill-structured problems as problems that occur in the everyday world, are complex, emergent, and interdisciplinary, and have multiple solutions and solution paths. In other words, it would not (or should not) be possible for a student to develop a viable solution to an ill-structured problem on their own, nor would it be possible for students to solve such problems without a pedagogical expert’s facilitation. Additionally, it would not be possible to solve ill-structured problems in one problem solving cycle; rather, multiple problem solving cycles are needed to develop viable solutions.
In order to effectively implement PBL and ensure that critical thinking skills are fostered, the characteristics of ill-structured problems should be aligned with the pedagogical principles of PBL in a three-phased learning design approach. Table 1 illustrates how this can be done for phase 1, “problem posing and representation”. Due to space limitations, phase 2 (problem solving process) and phase 3 (problem resolution and reflection) will be described at the conference should this proposal be accepted for presentation.
While problem solving and decision making have been coupled with critical thinking in the 2013 ETS report, problem solving has its own prominence as a key cognitive process that must be cultivated to enable individuals to be productive members of society. Jonassen (2011) argued that problem solving is the most authentic and relevant learning activity that students can engage in, and that knowledge gained in the context of problem solving is better comprehended and retained, and therefore more usable and transferrable. Jonassen (2011) defined problem solving as a process that has two critical attributes: the ability to form a mental representation or mental model of the problem and the ability to test the mental model in order to generate a solution to the problem. As such, problem solving can be described as a heuristic process requiring the ability to form a hypothesis, find and sort information, think critically about information, ask questions, and reach a viable resolution or solution to the problem. In a 2012 National Research Council report, Pellegrino and Hilton found that the ability to solve problems is one of the most important 21st century skills sought by employers. Further elaboration on this skill resulted in the following descriptors: problem solving, creativity, innovation, critical thinking, analysis, reasoning, argumentation, interpretation, decision making, adaptive learning, or executive function (Clark & Mayer, 2016, p. 344).
It is clear from this brief overview that problem solving, decision making, and critical thinking are interdependent and not mutually exclusive skills. Rather, critical thinking can be perceived as an overarching or broad set of skills that encompass several competencies including problem solving and decision making. The question then becomes, how effective is PBL in supporting critical thinking skills? And, are there specific PBL processes or pedagogical principles that influence critical thinking skills more than others?
PBL has been shown to foster the development and improvement of critical thinking skills such as problem solving, analytic thinking, decision making, reasoning, argumentation, interpretation, synthesis, evaluation, collaboration, communication, and self-directed learning (Abrami et al., 2015; Loyens et al., 2015). In fact, since the origins of PBL, researchers (e.g., Barrows & Kelson, 1995) have consistently emphasized that the goals of PBL are to develop critical thinking skills and competencies necessary to operate effectively in professional and private life. However, what this research also demonstrates is that PBL implementation varies across disciplines and contexts making it difficult to replicate how these outcomes are realized. For example, Nargundkar et al.
(2014) used a guided PBL approach, dubbed reverse order textbook, in a college business course to promote critical thinking. Challenges were introduced prior to the content but students were aware that answers to these challenges were in the back of the textbook. This suggests that the challenges were well-defined with clear solutions and solution paths. Kumar and Refaei (2017) implemented PBL in an intermediate college composition
Carvalho, A. (2016). The impact of PBL on transferable skills development in management education. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 53(1), 35-47.
Clark, R.C., & Mayer, R.E. (2016). e-Learning and the science of instruction (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Wiley.
Jonassen, D.H. (2011). Learning to solve problems: A handbook for designing problem-solving learning environments. New York, NY: Routledge.
Koh, J. H. L., Chai, C. S., Wong, B., & Hong, H.-Y (2015). Design thinking for education: Conceptions and applications in teaching and learning. Singapore: Springer.
Kumar, R., & Refaei, B. (2017). Problem-based learning pedagogy fosters students’ critical thinking about writing.
Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 11(2).
Loyens, S.M.M., Jones, S.H., Mikkers, J., & van Gog, T. (2015). Problem-based learning as a facilitator of conceptual change. Learning and Instruction, 38, 34-42.
Markle, R., Brenneman, M., Jackson, T., Burrus, J. & Robbins, S. (2013). Synthesizing frameworks of higher education student learning outcomes. ETS Research Report Series, 2013(2), i–37.
Nargundkar, S., Samaddar, S., & Mukhopadhyay, S. (2014). A guided problem-based learning (PBL) approach:
Impact on critical thinking. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 12(2), 91-108.
Pellegrino, J.W. & Hilton, M. L. (2012). Education for life and work: Developing transferable knowledge and skills in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Wedelin, D., & Adawi, T. (2015). Warming up for PBL: A course in mathematical modelling and problem solving for engineering students. Högre utbildning, 5(1), 23 – 24.
Wilder, S. (2015). Impact of problem-based learning on academic achievement in high school: A systematic review. Educational Review, 67(4), 414-435.
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Nada Dabbagh, ndabbagh@gmu.edu, United States, George Mason University, (corresponding author)
Table 1
PBL Problem Characteristics PBL Pedagogical Principles Critical Thinking Skills Phase I – Problem Posing and Representation
•Problem lacks the needed
•Learning activities in PBL must be those valued in the real world
Abrami, P. C., Bernar, R. M., Borokhovski, E., Waddington, D. I., Wade C. A., & Persson, T. (2015). Strategies for teaching students to think critically: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 85(2), 275-314.
Barrows, H. S., & Kelson, A. C. (1995). Problem-based learning in secondary education and the problem-based learning institute. Springfield, IL: PBL Institute.
Carvalho, A. (2016). The impact of PBL on transferable skills development in management education. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 53(1), 35-47.
Clark, R.C., & Mayer, R.E. (2016). e-Learning and the science of instruction (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Wiley.
Jonassen, D.H. (2011). Learning to solve problems: A handbook for designing problem-solving learning environments. New York, NY: Routledge.
Koh, J. H. L., Chai, C. S., Wong, B., & Hong, H.-Y (2015). Design thinking for education: Conceptions and applications in teaching and learning. Singapore: Springer.
Kumar, R., & Refaei, B. (2017). Problem-based learning pedagogy fosters students’ critical thinking about writing.
Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 11(2).
Loyens, S.M.M., Jones, S.H., Mikkers, J., & van Gog, T. (2015). Problem-based learning as a facilitator of conceptual change. Learning and Instruction, 38, 34-42.
Markle, R., Brenneman, M., Jackson, T., Burrus, J. & Robbins, S. (2013). Synthesizing frameworks of higher education student learning outcomes. ETS Research Report Series, 2013(2), i–37.
Nargundkar, S., Samaddar, S., & Mukhopadhyay, S. (2014). A guided problem-based learning (PBL) approach:
Impact on critical thinking. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 12(2), 91-108.
Pellegrino, J.W. & Hilton, M. L. (2012). Education for life and work: Developing transferable knowledge and skills in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Wedelin, D., & Adawi, T. (2015). Warming up for PBL: A course in mathematical modelling and problem solving for engineering students. Högre utbildning, 5(1), 23 – 24.
Wilder, S. (2015). Impact of problem-based learning on academic achievement in high school: A systematic review. Educational Review, 67(4), 414-435.
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Nada Dabbagh, ndabbagh@gmu.edu, United States, George Mason University, (corresponding author)
Table 1
PBL Problem Characteristics PBL Pedagogical Principles Critical Thinking Skills Phase I – Problem Posing and Representation
• Problem lacks the needed
• Learning activities in PBL must be those valued in the real world
Abrami, P. C., Bernar, R. M., Borokhovski, E., Waddington, D. I., Wade C. A., & Persson, T. (2015). Strategies for teaching students to think critically: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 85(2), 275-314.
Barrows, H. S., & Kelson, A. C. (1995). Problem-based learning in secondary education and the problem-based learning institute. Springfield, IL: PBL Institute.
Diana Dolmans, d.dolmans@maastrichtuniversity.nl, Netherlands, Maastricht University, School of Health Professions Education