Proceedings o f the
Danish Institute at Athens •
Edited by Seven D ie tz
T h e pub licatio n was sponsored by:
C o n su l G eneral G osta E nborns Foundation.
T h e D anish R esearch C o u n cil for th e H um anities.
K onsul G eorge Jo rck og H u stru E m m a J o rc k ’s Fond.
© C o p y rig h t T h e D anish Institute at A thens, A thens 1995
Proceedings o f th e D anish Institute at A thens G eneral E d ito r: Seren D ietz
G raphic design and P ro d u c tio n by: Freddy Pedersen P rin te d in D e n m ark on p e rm a n en t paper IS B N 87 7288 721 4
D istrib u te d by
A A R H U S U N IV E R S IT Y P R E S S U niversity o f Aarhus
D K -8 0 0 0 A rhus C Fax (+45) 8619 8433 73 Lim e W alk
H e ad in g to n , O x fo rd 0 X 3 7AD Fax (+44) 865 750 079 B ox 511
O akville, C o n n . 06779 Fax (+1) 203 945 94 9468
T h e cover illustration depicts a B ronze Statuette o f a H o rse fo u n d at th e Argive H eraion. N M 13943.
D raw in g by N iels Levinsen. See p. 55, Fig. 19.
Pagans in Late R om an Halikarnassos I
The interpretation
o f a recently excavated building
Birte Poulsen
N O T E 1
T h e excavations w ere b e g un on b e h alf o f the B o - d ru m M u seu m o f U n d e r
w ater A rchaeology, and w e are greatly in d eb ted to the D ire cto r O g u z A lpozen, to D r. A ykut O z et, w h o is co -d ire cto r o f the excava
tio n , and to o th er m e m bers o f the M u seu m staff fo r th eir assistance d u rin g the cam paigns. P oul P ed er
sen, O d en se U niversity, is d irecto r o f the D anish E x p ed itio n , w hile the present a u th o r has m ainly acted as field d irecto r o f the exca
v ation in C o b an Yildizi Sokak, o f w h ic h the p u b lication is in preparation.
F or prelim inary reports, Poulsen 1994;
P oulsen, fo rth co m in g a;
Poulsen, fo rth co m in g b.
N O T E 2
T h e cross indicates the lo cation o f the R o m a n villa im m ediately sou th o f the street w h ic h passes sou th o f
the M aussolleion terrace.
N O T E 3
Studies o n the o rth o g o n al to w n plan o f H alikarnassos, P edersen 1988 and 1988a.
D u rin g fo u r cam paigns from 1990-1993 th e D e p a rtm e n t o f G reek an d R o m a n Studies at O d e n se U n iv ersity has b ee n ex cavating p a rt o f a R o m a n b u ild in g in an
c ie n t H alikarnassos.1 It is situated o n C o b an Y ildizi S treet, a b o u t 200 m . w est o f th e M aussolleion terrace (Fig. I ) .2 O r ig i
nally, th e m ain in terest o f th e D anish team in th e p resen t excavation was to th ro w lig h t o n th e to w n plan o f H alikarnassos d u rin g th e 4 th c e n tu ry B .C .3 and since th e area in q u e stio n had in fact yielded the rem ains o f a stro n g ashlar wall w h ic h seem ed to follow th e o rie n ta tio n o f th e late Classical to w n plan, i.e. 4 degrees n o r th o f east, w e p articularly w elc o m e d th e o p p o rtu n ity to excavate in this area (Fig. 2). W h e n w e started o u r investiga
tions considerable re c e n t b u ild in g activity co u ld b e observed o n th e site, and a small b u ild in g had b e e n erected to th e south.
Large fo u n d atio n s tren ch es had b e e n sunk in th e w estern and in th e n o rth e rn m o s t p a rt o f th e area, and stro n g c o n crete fo u n dations recently laid to th e south-east.
T h is w o rk was h alted by th e B o d ru m M u se u m o f U n d e rw a te r A rchaeology, b e cause m osaic floors h ad tu r n e d up. A team from th e M u se u m th e n u n d e rto o k exca
vations from n o r th to so u th th ro u g h the central p a rt o f th e area an d cleared p a rt o f th ree room s d ec o ra te d w ith m osaic floors (Fig. 2, p a rt o f ro o m F, G and H ).
T h e site is b o u n d e d to th e east by the m o d e rn C o b a n Y ildizi Street, to th e south and n o rth by sm aller p rivate roads, an d to
Fig. 1. Reconstructed town plan o f Halikarnassos (Poul Pedersen).
193
//£■ v > ;
r-yp^L.
Fiy. 3. Room F seen from the east.
'i 1 *•* " V
^ 4 - ' ^ * ' X - :
■» t<KJ ,r i ^ • ^ r ~ r . r ~ r r - .~J
Fig. 4. Inscription in medallion seen from the west.
(Mgs
J r \ ,
the w est by a private property. It measures approxim ately 25 m . east-west and 40 m.
n o rth -so u th . A t least fo u r different levels o f m osaic floors have been established; all evi
dently belo n g to the last phase o f th e villa.
T h e large apsidal ro o m F has a total w id th o f a b o u t 10 m ., and a le n g th o f a b o u t 14 m . in c lu d in g th e apse. Its m osa
ics, lying at a level o f c. 10.40 m . a.s.l., are u n fo rtu n a te ly m u c h dam aged d ue to b u ri
als d u rin g th e 1.8th and 19th centuries w h e n th e w h o le site was evidently used as a cem etery. M arble slabs w ith doorsteps b etw e en th e m d em arcated th e ro o m from th e apse, w h ic h was d eco rated w ith purely g e o m e tric m osaics4 w ith a b o rd e r o f ivy- leaves an d p o m egranates. T h e g eo m etric p a tte rn consists o f squares w ith in scrib ed circles, rosettes an d cable-knots altern atin g w ith Maltese crosses. T h e colours are red, d ark blue and yellow on a w h ite g ro u n d .
T h e m osaic flo o r o f th e m ain ro o m (F) is deco rated w ith partly figural, partly g eo m etric m otifs. A broad b an d w ith a di
agonal g rid enclosing diam onds in red, w h ite, dark blue and light blue runs along th e walls and th e apse, and inside this an o th e r b an d w ith a shaded m u lti-stran d ed guilloche in red, yellow, lig h t blue and dark blue borders the figural c o m p o sitio n at the centre. T his consists o f eight m edal
lions arranged in a circle, and h eld to g e th er w ith a tw o strand tw ist. Seven o f these m edallions co n tain representations w ith ru n n in g stags and deers, a p anther, and a dog, all placed against a b a c k g ro u n d o f stylized trees; apparently a h u n tin g scene (Fig. 3). T h e m edallion in fro n t o f the e n trance co n tain ed an in scrip tio n consisting o f 8 lines, b u t u n fo rtu n ately th e left h alf was d isturbed by a b u rial (Fig. 4 ).5 In the spandrels o f th e circle, personifications o f
N O T E 4
D esignations according to C am pbell 1988, 85-100 and 1991, 36-44.
N O T E 5
T h e inscriptions will be published by S. Isager, U niversity o f O dense, see below.
Fig. 5. Personification o f A utum n. Fig. 6. Personification o f Spring.
Fig. 7. Personification o f Summer. Fig. 8. Personification o f Winter
w in g e d fem ale Seasons w ere represented, all ch arac teriz ed by in scrip tio n s and the attrib u tes o f th e Seasons. T h e representa
tions are various, b u t all are su rro u n d e d by acanthus scrolls from w h ich th ey seem to em erge. T h e p erso n ificatio n in th e n o r th w est spandrel is w e a rin g a lig h t blue dress, and holds a lig h t b lu e scarf in front o f h er w ith representations o f b u n ch es o f grapes and fruits. O n h e r head she w ears a g reen an d yellow w reath . T h e a ttrib u tes and the G re ek in sc rip tio n situated above h e r rig h t w in g “ 3 > 0 I N O n O P O N “ identify h e r clearly as th e p erso n ificatio n o f A u tu m n (Fig. 5). T h e co rre sp o n d in g personifica
tio n o f S pring, to th e n o rth -e a st, wears a y ellow dress an d is h o ld in g a red scarf w ith representations o f flowers (Fig. 6). O n h e r head she w ears a w re a th w ith flow ers in different colours. T h e in scrip tio n , A I A P , is placed w ith tw o letters on e ith e r side o f
h e r head. T h e re m ain in g tw o Seasons are ra th e r dam aged an d it ca n n o t b e d e te r
m in e d w h e th e r th ey are m ale o r female.
T h e ir identities are, how ever, secured th ro u g h attrib u tes an d inscriptions. T h u s th e figure to th e so u th -w est, w h ic h grow s d irectly from an acanthus (Fig. 7), holds in its left h an d a sickle and is presum ably to be id e n tified as S um m er, 0 E P O E . O n ly o n e le tte r o f th e in sc rip tio n , a th eta, can b e seen to th e left. T h e re m ain in g Season to th e so u th -east m u st th e n b e identified as W in te r, X E I M O N ( F i g . 8). T h is is also c o n firm e d by p a rt o f th e in scrip tio n , M O N , o n th e left side o f th e head. In ei
th e r h a n d th e Season holds a b ird by the legs.
A n in scrip tio n in a tabula ansat.a, flanked by a d o g to th e rig h t chasing a w ild goat to th e left, was revealed in fro n t o f th e apse (Fig 9). It m e n tio n s a certain
195
C h a rid e m o s, w h o paid for th e mosaic floors, an d w h o can perhaps be identified w ith th e o w n e r o f the building.
A lth o u g h w in g ed fem ale Seasons ap
p ear occasionally in R o m a n art, they w ere never a co m m o n m otif. Busts o f w in g ed fem ale Seasons w ere also fo u n d by N e w to n in ro o m B o f his R o m a n Villa in H al
ikarnassos.6 T h e y are, how ever, q u ite dif
ferent from ours since they do n o t h o ld any scarfs w ith attributes, th o u g h they w ere likew ise characterized by in scrip tions. W in g e d fem ale Seasons are also fo u n d in th e m osaics o f R o m a n N o rth A frica and S yria.7 T h e closest parallels to these Seasons are in fact fo u n d in the m o saic floor o f the C o n stan tin ian Villa in A n tio c h ia .8 T h e fo u r Seasons are show n in this case em e rg in g from an acanthus w ith scrolls to e ith e r side. T h e y are h o ld in g scarfs w ith th eir attributes, ju s t like the Seasons o f ro o m F. T h e S p rin g thus holds a veil full o f flowers and lilies, th e S u m m er a sh eaf o f w h eat, and th e A u tu m n a veil w ith fruits (bunches o f grapes and large ro u n d e d fruits). T h e central p art o f the W in te r is u n fo rtu n a te ly m issing b u t h er m an tle is raised to cover h e r head.
F rom this large apsidal ro o m (F) access was probably p ro v id ed by tw o doors to a n o th e r ro o m situated to th e w est (B).
T h is latter ro o m was only partly excavat
ed, since it extends u n d e r th e n e ig h b o u r
in g p lo t, b u t it has rem ains o f a m uch dam aged m osaic floor at the same level as th a t o f ro o m F, i.e. c. 10.40 m . a.s.l. Since this m osaic was n o lo n g e r com plete, it was possible to excavate b elo w th e floor level, and to ascertain the existence o f several fo u n d a tio n walls p red atin g th e mosaics (Fig. 2). A t least som e o f these fo u n d a tio n walls m ust date to th e H ellenistic p e rio d , perhaps even to the 4th c en tu ry B .C ., since the m aterial fo u n d b etw een th e m includes a large a m o u n t o f black-glazed pottery.
To th e south o f the apsidal ro o m F w e fo u n d rem ains o f at least three different room s o r structures. To th e w est lay a small paved yard (L), a d jo in in g a large ro o m (K) w ith a tesselated floor w ith M al
tese crosses similar to the ones in the apsi
dal ro o m F, b o rd e re d by ivy-leaves sp rin g
ing. 9. Inscription in tabula ansata in front o f the apse.
in g from an am p h o ra in th e co rn er. A d o o r led from this ro o m to F. To th e east is situated a fu rth e r rath er n arro w ro o m o r perhaps a c o rrid o r (M ), in w h ic h n o floor has so far b e e n traced. T h e levels o f b o th L and K are identical w ith th at o f F.
T h e lo n g n arro w n o rth -s o u th o rie n te d ro o m (G), ab o u t 2.80 m . broad, co u ld n o t be excavated in its entire len g th , b u t its
N O T E 6
R o o m B, N e w to n 1862, 285-286; H inks 1933, 129-130, no. 51c-d. O nly two, S pring and Sum m er, could be lifted and re
m oved to the B ritish M u seum . W in te r was in a bad co n d itio n and A u tu m n lost.
N O T E 7
E.g. m osaic from C ar
thage, Tunis, Bardo M us., Parrish no. 12, 120-122, pi. 20-21, seated w inged female personifications w ith nim bus. M osaic from El D jenr, Tunis, B ardo M us., Parrish 1984, no.
40, 184-186, pi. 57b, and mosaic from Z liten, T rip o li, M us. A rch., Parrish
1984, no. 68, 2 4 3-246, pi.
94-95. For Syria, cf. n o te 8 and Baity 1973.
N O T E 8
Levi 1947, 226-257, pis.
52-57, 143b-e, 160-162.
W in g ed female Seasons (busts) w ere also found in the H o u se o f the C alendar, Levi 1947, pi. 5b.
Fig. 10. Room G seen from the south.
total len g th co u ld b e estim ated to ab o u t 17.20 m . w h e n th e ea rth along its eastern wall an d th e th resh o ld from O was re - -. ■ m o v ed (Figs. 2 and 10). T h e level o f its m osaic floor is c. 9.80 m . a.s.l. T h e mosaics are alm ost all g e o m e tric in p a tte rn , c o m p o sed o f rectan g u lar c o m p artm en ts ar
ran g ed inside a b o rd e r w ith bead a n d reel.
T h is is su rro u n d e d in tu rn by a diagonal g rid in dark blue, w h ile th e o u te r edge alo n g th e walls consists o f a lig h t blue b o r
d e r o f different w id th . T h e g e o m e tric p a t
terns inside th e bead and reel b o rd e r are arran g ed in a ro w as follows: first a square w ith an in scrib e d o ctag o n , n e x t a p atte rn w ith in terlacin g circles w ith circles and fo u r-leav ed clovers in th e centres, n e x t lozenges a ltern a tin g w ith squares, n e x t a square w ith an in scrib ed circle, th e n a scale p a tte rn , th e n triangles and squares, and finely a square w ith an in scrib ed circle w ith a b ird p e rch ed o n a b ran ch in the centre. It is n o w possible, how ever, to es
tablish th a t th e m osaic floor o f this n arro w ro o m c o n tin u e d to th e w est aro u n d a c o r
ner. T h is m ay be co n c lu d e d o n th e basis o f tw o facts: firstly, because the w e stern wall o f (G) stops at th e p o in t w h e re an east-w est o rie n te d wall has its b eg in n in g ; secondly, th e lig h t blue b o rd e r along the walls does n o t c o n tin u e fu rth e r south, since it co u ld be ascertained th at at this p o in t th e diagonal g rid tu rn s at a rig h t an
gle and c o n tin u es a ro u n d the corner.
N o m osaics w ere fo u n d to th e w est o f (G), the on ly find h ere b e in g an east-w est o rie n te d wall w h ich co n tin u e s fu rth e r w est (D). B o th o n this wall and th e p a r
allel w all to the n o rth rem ains w ere fo u n d o f th e m arble facing in situ. East o f the n a rro w ro o m (G), walls in d icate at least th re e different room s, in c lu d in g at least o n e earlier b u ild in g phase rep resen ted by a cistern, w h ic h apparently w e n t o u t o f use at a later date.
Tw o steps le d from th e c o rrid o r in to an alm ost square ro o m (H) to th e east, m eas
u rin g c. 3.70 x 3.90 m . (Fig. 11). T h e m osaics, at a level o f a b o u t 9.30 m . a.s.l., co m p rise g e o m e tric and floral m otifs ar
ran g ed in sem icircles; th e colours are yel
low, dark blue, lig h t blue and red o n a
Fig. 11. Room H seen from the south.
w h ite g ro u n d . R o o m J to th e east c o n tain ed n o surviving floor, b u t rem ains o f tw o fo u n d a tio n walls earlier th an th e final phase o f th e R o m a n villa w ere found.
To th e so u th was excavated a p a rt o f w h a t was ap parently a large ro o m O w ith a h u g e th resh o ld lead in g to th e passage G to th e w est (Fig. 12). T h e m osaic flo o r in ro o m O, c. 8.80 m . a.s.l., is well preserved w ith several bord ers s u rro u n d in g a m ain m o tif in th e centre: o u te rm o s t a b o rd e r w ith fish and dolp h in s, th e n a do u b le
Fig. 12. The threshold o f Room O seen from the east.
19 7
swastika m e a n d e r enclosing squares and a b o rd e r w ith acanthus rin c e a u x w ith alter
n a tin g birds an d flowers in th e centres (Fig. 13). O n ly p a rt o f th e m ain m o tif in th e centre o f th e floor has b e e n revealed, an ic h th y o -c e n ta u r playing the cithara and ca rry in g a n e re id o n his b ack .9
T ren ch V was laid o u t to th e so u th w est. Its aim was to investigate th e ex te n t o f th e structure, an d to c o n firm w h e th e r th e w estern lim it o f the insula was (as w e h ad assum ed) situated in this area (Fig. 2).
All w e fo u n d , how ever, was an east-w est o rie n te d w all bu ilt o f sm aller stones m u c h like th e in n e r walls o f th e building, and so u th o f this a m osaic flo o r w ith a dark b lue diagonal g rid fo rm e d o f tw o tesserae.
As is ev id e n t from th e plan, th e rem ains o f tre n c h V do n o t co rre sp o n d to any p a rt o f N e w to n ’s villa, b u t th e wall and th e m osa
ic so u th o f it m ig h t nonetheless have b e lo n g ed to the same building.
N e w to n ’s R o m an Villa and the recently excavated
structure
A lready by th e en d o f th e 1991 cam paign it had b e c o m e clear th at the excavated re
m ains w ere on ly an o th e r p art o f th e R o m an Villa excavated by C .T. N e w to n in th e Field o f H adji C ap tan in 1 8 5 6 .10 O n N e w to n ’s m ap o f H alikarnassos, his R o m an Villa is placed im m ed iately to the so u th o f the street th a t ran n o rth o f the M aussolleion, th e p resent T u rg u t R eis. It appears, how ever, th at th e R o m a n villa was w ro n g ly lo cated on N e w to n ’s m ap. It is, in fact, to be situated fu rth e r south, n ear th e street th at passed th e so u th wall o f th e M au sso lleio n .11
T h e excavated p a rt o f N e w to n ’s villa m easures approxim ately 37 m . east-w est, 27 m. n o rth -s o u th (Fig. 14). A pparently N e w to n ascertained an o u te r wall to the
Fig. 13. Room O seen from the east.
Fig. 14. Plan o f the two parts o f the villa juxtaposed (lnger Bjerg Poulsen).
N O T E 9
A layer o f lim e still covers the surface o f the mosaic.
N O T E 1 0
P ublished in 1862, N e w to n 1862, 280-310.
N O T E 1 1
In discussing previous studies o f the tow n plan o f Halikarnassos, P. Pedersen advanced the hypothesis that the R o m a n villa was w rongly placed on N e w to n ’s map, Pedersen 1988a, fig. 3. Cf. m ap o f Halikarnassos w ith the co rrec t location, B iirchner 1912, 2257-2258.
N O T E 1 2
N e w to n 1862, 303-304.
N O T E 1 3
H inks 1933, 125-143.
N O T E 14
T h e co rresp o n d en ce is preserved in the B ritish Li
brary, for references, Je n kins 1992, 175-176. I am greatly in d eb ted to D r. I.
Jenkins, B ritish M useum , for having draw n m y atten tio n to b o th th e co rre
spondence and th e preser
ved photographs.
N O T E 1 5
T h e greater p art o f this p h o to g rap h ic m aterial is likewise preserved in the B ritish L ibrary and w ill ap
pear as d o c u m e n tatio n in the fo rth co m in g publica
tio n o f the villa. For the early use o f th e p h o to graphic records in archae
ology, Feyler 1987.
n o rth in ro o m A and B, and h e states th at th e east wail o f ro o m B was b u ilt o f large squared blocks. H e was, how ever, able to e x te n d his excavations n e ith e r fu rth e r east o f ro o m B and D d u e to a T urkish c e m e tery, n o r to th e w est a n d so u th w h e re the p ro p e rty o f H ad ji C ap tan was situated. H e does, how ever, m e n tio n a “p a v e m e n t”
so u th o f ro o m C , w h ic h c o n tin u e d u n d e r th e yard wall o f H ad ji C a p ta n ’s h o u se .12
N e w to n b ro u g h t ab o u t h a lf o f th e best p reserved m osaic floors back to th e B ritish M u s e u m ,13 b u t he left m an y o f th e m osa
ics w ith figural representations in situ, b e cause h e was sh o rt o f th e necessary plaster to rem ove th em . T h is is revealed in the c o rresp o n d an c e b e tw e e n N e w to n and his frien d , th e th e n c h ie f lib rarian o f th e B rit
ish M u seu m , A. P an izzi.14 Since it was im possible fo r h im to lift all th e floors, he d ec id ed to have all th e m osaics p h o to g ra p h e d in situ ,K and w ith th e help o f this
invaluable p h o to g ra p h ic m aterial it is n o w possible b o th to c o m p le m e n t th e m osaics rem oved and b ro u g h t to th e B ritish M u seum , and to gain an im pression o f the m osaics w h ic h N e w to n left in situ.
T h e existence o f p o st-a n tiq u e graves o n th e site o f th e re c e n t excavations, espe
cially ev id en t in th e flo o r o f th e large apsi
dal ro o m F, co n firm s th a t th e area was o n ce used as a cem etery. T h a t this m ust be id en tical w ith th e c e m e te ry th at p rev en ted N e w to n from ex te n d in g his excavations fu rth e r east seem s clear. T h e identical flo o r levels and th e w e ste rn d oorsteps o f th e apsidal ro o m F also d e m o n strate th at th e n ew ly excavated room s w ere in d e e d p a rt o f th e sam e b u ild in g as th a t excavated by N e w to n . F u rth e rm o re , th e excavated p a rt o f ro o m B, p a rt o f th e w e ste rn w all o f ro o m G an d th e east-w est o rie n te d wall b e tw e e n ro o m D an d N co rre sp o n d to the eastern p a rt o f N e w to n ’s villa (Fig. 14).
199
N e w to n states th at the m osaic flo o r o f ro o m B was m u ch dam aged, and he therefore left m o st o f it in place, m erely rem o v in g th e figural m otif, a representa
tio n o f A talanta and M eleag er to th e west;
b u t h e h ad to leave a sim ilar representation o f A eneas and D id o to th e east.16 T h is ac
cords w ith th e fact th at th e m osaic was m u c h dam aged in th e eastern p a rt o f ro o m B; in fact n o surviving traces o f the representation o f A eneas and D id o w ere fo u n d . T h e u p p e r layers in b o th ro o m B and D w ere ch aracterized by m any frag
m en ts o f mosaics, presum ably pieces w h ic h h ad b e e n left by N e w to n . F u rth e r
m ore, w e fo u n d rem ains o f m arble facing in th e ro o m c o rresp o n d in g to N e w to n ’s ro o m D w h ic h are presum ably identical w ith the rem ains he m e n tio n e d .17 O n the o th e r h and, th e excavations have n o t c o n firm ed th e existence o f an eastern o u te r wall in N e w to n ’s ro o m B, alth o u g h his sta tem en t m ig h t b e d ue to th e fact th at he co u ld n o t investigate it p ro p erly .18
T h e m osaics fo u n d by N e w to n w ere situated a b o u t 6 0 -9 0 cm . b e n e a th th e sur
face level at th at tim e. Fie ascertained tw o different flo o r levels in his villa, a h ig h er o n e in room s A, B, C and E, and a low er o n e in ro o m D and passages A and B; the difference in level b e in g spanned by tw o steps leading from ro o m C to passage A.
Fig. 15. Section o f the ashlar wall (Ole A . Hansen).
T h e m osaics w ere variously b ed d ed o n a layer o f m aterial from earlier buildings, o r o n earth, o r directly o n th e ro c k .19 T h e tesserae w ere p rim arily o f m arble, b u t tesserae o f red b rick and green glass w ere also used.20 W ith the evidence o f the re
ce n t excavation, w e are able to conclude th a t the floor level o f N e w to n ’s room s A, B, C and E was ab o u t 10.40 m . a.s.l. and th at o f passages A and B and ro o m D ab o u t 9.80 m . a.s.l. T h e latter level c o rre sponds to th e level o f th e lo n g narrow ro o m (G) w h ic h has identical p ro p o rtio n s, and mosaics similar to the ones o f passage A.
T h e c o n n e x io n b etw een the tw o parts
N O T E 1 6
N e w to n 1862, 283-287.
N O T E 1 7
T h e walls in room s A and D still had remains o f a m arble facing, N e w to n 1862, 308.
N O T E 1 8
T h e walls revealed by N e w to n w ere constructed partly in large ashlars, partly in rubble and spoliated m aterial from earlier buildings, e.g. co lu m n drum s, N e w to n 1862, 281 and 305. A colum n d rum w ith stucco was similarly reused in one o f the walls o f room J.
n o t e 1 9
N e w to n 1862, 308-309.
N O T E 2 0 N e w to n 1862, 309.
o f th e villa - th e o n e excavated by N e w to n , th e o n e by us - is also in d icated by th e fact th a t som e o f th e g e o m e tric m otifs w ere in fact used in b o th . T h u s th e M a l
tese crosses in th e apse o f F and in ro o m K have an exact parallel in N e w to n ’s ro o m C, w h e re they w ere used in th e central m o tif.21 T h e m o tif is here su rro u n d e d by a w h ite b o rd e r w ith ivy-leaves. O u tsid e o f H alikarnassos, I k n o w o f on ly tw o o th e r exam ples, nam ely in K nidos, w h e re the m o tif was used in th e B y zan tin e basilica
n o t e 2 1
N e w to n 1962, 2 8 7-288, pis. X X X IX and XL; H in k s 1933, no. 52b, fig. 1.51.
N O T E 2 2
M ellink 1973, 193, pi. 73.6 (I.C. Love); C am pbell 1979, 290, pi. 44, fig. 1.8.
N O T E 23
C am pbell 1979, 290, 292, pi. 44, fig. 14. A cco rd in g to C am pbell the mosaics in this p art o f Asia M in o r do n o t have m any features in c o m m o n w ith the East, e.g.
Syria.
n o t e 2 4
Passage A has approxim ately the same w id th , and is ab o u t 17 m . long, N e w to n 1862, 2 9 7 -3 0 1 , pi. X L I; H inks 1933, no. 55b, fig. 160.
NOTE 2 5
N e w to n 1862, 286, pi. X L . In fact w e de te cted p art o f tw o rath er fragm ented m e dallions in th e eastern p art o f ro o m B.
N O T E 2 6
N e w to n 1862, 285-286; H inks 1933, nos. 51c-d, fig. 149.
dated to th e 5 th c e n tu ry A .D .,22 an d in C os, likew ise in a c h u rc h .23 S om e o f the m otifs o f th e m osaic in th e lo n g n arro w ro o m G, e.g. a g e o m e tric p a tte rn w ith scales and a m o tif w ith squares altern a tin g w ith lozenges (Fig. 10) find exact parallels in N e w to n ’s passage A .24 O n e o f th e c o m positions in N e w to n ’s ro o m B 25 closely re
sem bles the o n e in th e apsidal ro o m F, w h e re eig h t m edallions are placed in a cir
cle held to g e th e r by a tw o strand tw ist.
Parallels to th e personifications o f th e Sea
sons are also fo u n d in ro o m B, w h e re w in g e d fem ale personifications are charac
te rized by th e usual attrib u tes an d G reek in scrip tio n s.26
W ith th e ad d itio n o f the R o m a n villa excavated by N e w to n , th e excavated p art o f th e b u ild in g m easures c. 53 m . east-w est and 28 m . n o rth -s o u th , th u s co v erin g an area o f m o re th an 1400 m 2. T h e on ly as
certa in ed o u te r d e lim itatio n o f th e b u ild in g still rem ains th e ashlar wall to the n o rth , visible for ab o u t 17 m . in th e recent excavated p a rt (Fig. 15). T h e ashlar wall has a m ax. preserved h e ig h t o f c. 2 .2 0 m . and p roved to be q u ite h e te ro g en eo u s in c o n stru c tio n , bu ilt o f blocks o f various m aterial and size. T h e w all’s fo u n d atio n s rest directly o n th e natural rock, th e b o t
to m row consisting o f andesite blocks.
T h e wall com pensates fo r th e irregularities
201
o f th e ro ck by b e in g partly cu t in to it.
T h e blocks w ere apparently laid w ith m o rta r from th e second row upw ards.
R e g u la r blocks w ith a h e ig h t o f 58 cm co u ld b e ascertained in the w estern p a rt o f th e wall. T h ese are very precisely laid, w ith o u t th e use o f m ortar. Two parallel o blique walls, ru n n in g so u th from the ash
lar wall at exactly this p o in t, m ay indicate a k in d o f div id in g line o f th e insula, and this m ay explain w h y N e w to n ex p ected th e eastern o u te r wall to b e fo u n d here.
A b o u t 11 m east o f this p o in t th e c o n stru ctio n o f th e ashlar wall changes, w ith sm aller irreg u lar blocks b e in g used in its low er, and large and w ell-dressed ashlars in its u p p e r courses. T h e b o tto m row o f an- desite blocks also te rm in a te d at exactly this p o in t, perhaps m a rk in g th e original c o rn e r o f th e insula. T h e ashlar wall seems to have b e e n p ro lo n g e d eastwards d u rin g th e c o n stru c tio n o f th e building, partly w ith reused, beautifully dressed ashlars.
T h e ceram ic evidence suggests th at the earlier fo u n d a tio n walls u n d e r th e m osaic flo o r o f ro o o m B date to th e early H e lle nistic p e rio d , as also does the low est row o f ashlars o f th e n o r th e rn o u te r wall. F u r
th e rm o re th e ashlar wall faced o n to the an cie n t street th at passed south o f th e te r
race wall o f the M aussolleion, also in d icat
in g th a t th e m ost an cien t p a rt o f this b u ild in g m ig h t reflect th e 4 th c en tu ry to w n plan o f M aussollos.
As to th e date, N e w to n th o u g h t that n o th in g was earlier th an th e A n to n in e p e rio d an d n o th in g later th an th e Severan.27 T h is datin g appears to be m u c h to o early.
T h e com parative m aterial cited by H in k s28 indicates a date for th e m osaics to the 4th o r 5 th c e n tu ry A.D . A t the present stage o f investigation, it appears, how ever, that th e latest phase o f the b u ild in g belongs to the m id 5 th o r seco n d h a lf o f the 5 th c e n tu ry A .D .29 N o d o u b t fu tu re w o rk o n the excavated m a terial w ill y ield fu rth e r in fo rm a tio n as regards different b u ild in g phases, b u t it seems th a t th e villa had at least fo u r different levels d u rin g its latest p e rio d .30
W e have so far b ee n unable to ascertain at w h a t tim e o r w h y the late R o m a n
bu ild in g was ab andoned. T h e re are no traces o f fire, b u t everyw here in th e apsi
dal ro o m fallen rooftiles and bricks m ixed w ith stucco co u ld be observed; som e blocks o f bricks had in fact p e n e tra te d the m osaics in th e ir fall.31 Since only a few utensils w ere fo u n d d u rin g th e excavation, it seems th at th e b u ild in g h ad already b een ab a n d o n ed before it collapsed.
T he late R o m an building and its architectural type
T h e b u ild in g in H alikarnassos resem bles m ost closely th e late an tiq u e palaces or villas w h ic h have also b een called houses,32 e.g. the late R o m a n house above th e th ea
tre in E phesos33 and the so-called palace o f th e bishop o r g o v ern o r in A phrodisias.34 T h ese large and c o m p lex buildings w ere
N O T E 27 N e w to n 1862, 310.
n o t e 28
H inks 1933, 125-143.
N O T E 29
H inks 1933. Cf. mosaics w ith representations o f animals in N e w to n ’s room A, H inks 1933, 126-127, nos. 50a-d, fig. 142-144, and sim ilar friezes in D idym a, N au m an n 1980, pi. 78-7 9 (late 5th cen tu ry A D ). As regards the choice o f motifs the mosaics from Sarrin (O srhoene) are very similar, Baity 1990.
N O T E 3 0
T h e fo u r levels are: room s A, B, C , E and F: 10.40 tn. a.s.l., room s D, G and pas
sages A and B: 9.80 m . a.s.l., room H: 9.30 m . a.s.l., and room O : 8.80 m . a.s.l.
N O T E 31
An earthquake may have been the cause, b u t H alikarnassos does n o t seem to have been exposed to earthquakes very often. Indeed, according to Tac. A n n . 4.55, one o f the reasons w hy Halikarnassos was considered a safe place for the dedication o f a tem ple to T iberius was that n o earthquake had o ccu rre d in the tow n for about 1200 years. For o th er reasons, however, the h o n o u r in this case fell to Sm yrna.
N O T E 3 2
T h e designations o f this type o f building are rath er confused, b u t for the present w e should probably m aintain the designation “ h o u se” for the build in g in H alikar- nasos, Ellis 1985, 15, 19, 23. R o ssite r 1989 applies the villa designation on the building in Apollonia. For discussions on “ palatial” architecture, D ow n ey 1993.
N O T E 33
Keil 1930, Beibl. 31-34; Keil 1932, Beibl. 7-12; Vetters 1981, 142.
N O T E 3 4
C am pbell 1991, 14-15 w ith references. For a similar building in A pollonia, Ellis 1985 w ith references.
c h aracterized by m an y specialized room s in te n d e d fo r certain fo rm al functions, som e o f w h ic h h ad previously b elo n g ed to th e p ublic sector.35 T h is applies for ex am p le to th e a u d ien ce ro o m , n o rm ally a large apsidal ro o m w ith a direct exit to th e street th ro u g h an a n te ro o m .36 T h e apsidal ro o m F m ay perhaps b e id en tified w ith such an au d ien ce ro o m since th e in scrip tio n seem s to address th e visitor. A n o th e r possibility is R o o m C , w h ic h m ay have had a direct ex it th ro u g h ro o m E. R o o m E c o n ta in e d circular m edallions w ith p e r
sonifications o f th e cities o f H alikarnassos, A lexandria an d B e ry tu s,37 and such rep re
sentations w ere in d e e d suitable fo r a vesti
bule. S om e o f these apsidal ro o m s w ere used as d in in g room s, th e sem icircular c o u c h , stibadium , b e in g placed in th e apse.38 A d o o r o n th e south side m ay in d i
cate, how ever, th at ro o m F was probably n ev er used as a triclinium, since this feature is n o rm a lly n o t fo u n d in th e apsidal d in in g room s, b u t is o n th e co n tra ry usual in
n o t e 3 5
Ellis 1988; Ellis 1991.
N O T E 3 6
Ellis 1988, 569; Ellis 1991, 120.
N O T E 3 7
N e w to n 1862, 288-290; H inks 1933, 133, no. 53, fig. 153.
n o t e 3 8
D uval 1984, 457-464; Ellis 1988, 571.
N O T E 39 Ellis 1991, 120.
N O T E 4 0
T h e p ro p o rtio n s o f the au d ien ce halls o f Ephesos and Aphrodisias are alm ost id en tical w ith ro o m F in w id th , 9.8 m . and 9 m ., b u t b o th are longer, 22.2 m . and 18.5 m . respectively.
N O T E 41
T h e frieze in ro o m D is 15.54 m . long, and 4.57 m . w ide. Passage B is 4.43 m.
w ide. T h e length is given to 19.51, since it includes the w id th o f passage A (3.05 m.) and a wall (c. 0.60 m .).
N O T E 4 2
Also illustres w ere still residing in th e provinces d u rin g the 5 th and 6 th centuries, Jo n es 1964, 554; Ellis 1985, 23.
N O T E 4 3
T h e Proiecta casket o f the E squiline treasure is an excellent exam ple o f C hristian ow ners favouring secular and pagan m otifs, S h elto n 1981, 31-35.
th e au d ien ce ro o m s.39 T h e au d ien ce room s o f th e ‘villas’ in E phesos and in A phrodisias w ere b o th ch aracterized by exceptionally b eau tifu l floors;40 th e ro o m in E phesos h ad a fine susp en d ed g e o m e t
ric m osaic b o rd e re d by ivy-leaves, w hereas th e flo o r o f th e ro o m in A phrodisias was laid w ith opus sectile, th e m otifs b ein g su p erim p o sed circles in several colours.
It seems strange th a t n o peristyle has b e e n fo u n d in th e late R o m a n building, since it co n stitu tes a cen tral feature in th e o th e r houses o f sim ilar character, size and date. It may, o f course, be situated outside th e excavated area. B u t a n o th e r possibility is th at it was ro o fed over and filled in w ith m osaic floors at a sligthly later date. T h a t this is th e case is suggested by R o o m D, su rro u n d e d by Passage A, B, an d G. T h e peristyle ch aracter o f ro o m D is sh o w n by a n u m b e r o f factors. Firstly, it contains, o n its n o r th e rn side, an o b lo n g frieze c o m parable to th a t o f Passage B .41 N o t only are the c o m p o sitio n s o f these m osaics sim ilar, b u t som e o f th e m otifs used in th e m are identical. M o reo v er, th e east-w est o rie n te d wall b e tw e e n D a n d N suggests th a t th e m osaic flo o r o f D was a later solu
tio n , an d th at by th e n on ly N rem ain ed an o p e n courtyard. C o n tra ry to th e o th e r walls o f th e b u ilding, this w all is fo u n d e d directly in earth and its m aso n ry is o f ra th er p o o r quality. A n d finely th e existence o f a w ell in R o o m D m ay fu rth e r indicate th a t this area o f th e b u ild in g had originally b e e n an o p en courtyard.
O n ly in very rare cases has it b e e n p o s
sible to identify th e o w n ers o f these large buildings; in m o st cases it can on ly b e said w ith certa in ty th at they m u st have b e lo n g e d to th e provincial aristocracy.42 As is th e case o f th e late R o m a n b u ild in g in H alikarnassos, th e n am e o f th e d ed icato r o f th e d e c o ratio n , especially th e m osaic floors, is o ften k n o w n to us, b u t u n fo rtu nately su p p lem en tary in fo rm a tio n from o th e r sources is rare. T h e ch o ice o f m otifs in th e m osaics and th e in scrip tio n s o f H a l
ikarnassos suggest th a t C h a rid e m o s b e lo n g e d to th e pagan provincial aristocra
cy.43 T h e ic o n o g ra p h y o f th e m osaics is w h o lly pagan in character:
203
R o o m A:
H u n tin g scenes w ith lions, dogs, w ild goat and bull.
R o o m B:
A talanta an d M eleager, D id o and A eneas, th e fo u r Seasons, birds, anim als, flowers and ivy-leaves.
R o o m C:
Venus o r A m p h itrite in shell carried by tw o trito n s, ivy-leaves.
R o o m D :
P h o b o s-h ead s, satyr p u rsu in g a n y m p h or a m aen ad , N e re id seated on ic h th y o -c e n - taur, D ionysos w ith p an th er, P a n ’s pipe, birds, flowers, fish, cocks, head w ith dia
dem and ivy w reaths, fo u r heads, scene in a vineyard w ith Pan, Eros, p anther, lion, d o g an d birds, dolphins, E u ro p a standing by th e bull, reclin in g w ater n y m p h , dog and hare.
R o o m E:
M edallions w ith personifications o f H a li
karnassos, B erytus and A lexandria.
R o o m F:
T h e fo u r Seasons, h u n tin g scenes in c lu d in g p an th er, dogs, w ild goat, stags and deers, in scriptions, am p h o ra, flowers, ivy- leaves, pom egranates.
R o o m G: Bird.
R o o m H : Flow ers and ivy-leaves.
R o o m O :
Fish, dolphins, acanthus scroll w ith flow ers and birds, n e reid rid in g o n ic h ty o -c e n - taur.
Passage A:
Flow ers, ivy-leaves, pom egranates, bird, d o lp h in , laurel w rea th w ith in sc rip tio n Passage B:
P art o f thyrsos, in scrip tio n , low er p a rt o f figure, low er h a lf o f go at-leg g ed figure (Pan?), birds, heads, fishes, trees, flowers, cock, fruit, grapes.
A lth o u g h this strong pagan p red o m in an ce in th e ico n o g rap h ic rep erto ire m ay seem surprising som e 125 years after C o n stan tin e th e G reat, it does seem to co n fo rm w ith th e general situation in th e so u th w estern p art o f Asia M in o r d u rin g th e 5th and 6 th centuries. In fact it m ay b e c o n firm e d by an alm ost c o n te m p o ra ry source relating to th e situation in C aria, nam ely the m an u scrip t o f St. J o h n o fE p h e so s.44 D u rin g his w o rk in C aria aro u n d th e m id 6 th ce n tu ry J o h n o fE p h e so s recorded that th ere was still an unusually w idespread p a
gan activity. O th e r late R o m a n sources, n o t least th e C h ristian critics, em phasize the lu x u riu s a p p o in tm en ts, the lavish d e corations, o f various co n te m p o ra ry houses and villas. Som e o f these critics w ere n at
urally p ro n e to overstatem ent, since th eir p u rp o se in a d d u cin g these lu x u rio u s resi
dences was precisely to use th e m as exem - pla o f im m o ral co n d u ct.
A pagan d escrip tio n o f an earlier date, by A m m ianus M arcellinus (28.4.12), m ay thus give a m o re objective im pression o f h o w to in te rp re t d eco ratio n and fu rn ish ings o f a late R o m a n private h o u se.45 A m m ianus tells us th at th e clients and para
sites w h o th ro n g e d such a w ealthy house w ere so im pressed by its architectural e m bellishm ent, its rows o f soaring colum ns, its lofty facade, and th e p o ly ch ro m e d eco ration o f its walls, th at they w o u ld flatter the aristocratic o w n er by c o m p arin g h im to fam ous heroes o f the past, o r even to th e gods. T h e late R o m a n aristocrat m ust therefore have attached great im p o rtan ce to th e em b ellishm ent o f his house, espe
cially o f its aud ien ce room s, as a w ay o f establishing his selfconsequence and e n han cin g his prestige: the m osaics and o th er elem ents o f d ec o ratio n w ere a visible sign o f his status.46
T h e a ttrib u tio n o f heroic qualities to the aristocratic o w n e r corresponds to the g ro w th in representations o f heroes and m ythological episodes d u rin g th e late R o m an p e rio d .47 R o o m B o f th e b u ild in g in H alikarnassos thus had representations o f h u n tin g scenes w ith M eleag er and A talan
ta in a c o m p a rtm e n t to th e w est (Figs. l b - 18),48 Aeneas and D id o to th e east, all
n o t e 4 4
B ow ersock 1990, 1-3;
C am eron 1993, 70.
n o t e 45 Ellis 1991, 118.
n o t e 4 6
Cf. W allace-H adrill 1988 and 1990 for discussion o f houses as status sym bol o f the o w n er d u rin g an ear
lier period.
n o t e 4 7
B rilliant 1979; R a e c k 1992.
n o t e 4 8
T h e p h o to s o f these m osa
ics w ere taken d u rin g N e w to n ’s excavations, and are now divided betw een the G reek and R o m a n D ep artm en t, B ritish M u seum , and the B ritish Li
brary. T h ey will all be published in the fo rth co m ing publication o f the late R o m a n building.
Fig. 16. Atalanta (Photo: B. Spackmann, Creek and Roman Depart
ment, British Museum).
Fig. 17. The central part o f the frieze (Photo: B. Spackmann, British Library).
N O T E 4 9
B oardm an 1984, nos. 22-26; 3 4-39; 44-59. A m o n g the R o m a n specim ens only no. 47 stems from X anthos. See also, B aity 1990, 54-57, 76; R a e c k 1992, 71-98.
N O T E 5 0
C anciani 1981, nos. 157-361; B aity 1990, 55-56.
N O T E 51
Atalanta and M eleager are n o t placed in tw o different c o m p art
m ents, as stated by R a e c k 1992, 82; cf. N e w to n 1862, 283-284, and infra figs. 16-18.
N O T E 5 2
R a e c k 1992, 71-98. C f. also Ellis 1991, 118, 125-127 and Baity 1984, 458-459.
Fig. 18. Meleager (Photo: B. Spackmann, Greek and Roman Depart
ment, British Museum).
id en tified by inscriptions. B o th m otifs are ex cep tio n al in Asia M in o r,49 b u t w hereas M ele ag er and A talanta appear several tim es in th e late R o m a n m osaics o f Syria, th e representations o f A eneas an d D id o are com paratively rare.30 F ro m th e p h o to s o f th e m osaics in situ it appears th a t A ta
lanta an d M eleag er are rid in g against each o th e r.51 In co n trast to th e o rig in al version o f th e m y th , th ey are n o t chasing a w ild boar, b u t tw o felines. To th e rig h t o f the tree, a lion is shown attacking Atalanta on horseback; she is h o ld in g a b o w in h e r hands. F u rth e r to th e rig h t M eleag er is th ru stin g his spear at a p a n th e r situated b e lo w th e fro n t legs o f his horse. A c co rd
in g to th e re c e n t study by W. R a e c k ,52 this feature is characteristic o f th e use o f classi
cal m yths d u rin g Late A ntiquity. T h e o rig i
nal m y th o lo g ical event and its significance w ere su b o rd in ated to th e exem plum by w h ic h th e ow n er, by m eans o f a represen
tation o f a fam ous m y thological act, raised th e m u c h favoured h u n tin g sp o rt o f th e aristocracy to a m y th o lo g ical sphere, an d thus in d irectly em phasized his virtus.
As to th e in te rp re ta tio n o f th e excavat
ed structure, the written sources are of lit
tle use. W e k n o w th a t H alikarnassos was p lu n d e re d by Verres and later by pirates.
F ro m a rem a rk by C ic e ro it appears th at th e to w n at th a t tim e had fallen in to decay,
205
b u t was b e in g restored by his (C ic ero ’s) b ro th er, Q u in tu s .53 A lth o u g h V itruvius gives a m o re detailled acc o u n t o f the to w n , it rem ains u n c e rta in w h e th e r h e ac
tually visited H alikarnassos him self.54 H ali
karnassos was a m o n g th e tow ns w h ic h ap
p lied fo r a p erm issio n to dedicate a tem p le to T ib e riu s in 26 A .D .35 T h e sources to th e h isto ry o f th e to w n u n d e r R o m a n ru le are in d e e d ex trem ely sparse, b u t the to w n was n ev er fo rg o tte n as the site o f o n e o f th e seven w o n d ers o f th e w orld.
D u rin g th e reign o f Ju stin ian H ierokles m e n tio n e d it as th e th ird to w n in C aria after M iletus and H eraclea,56 b u t o th e r
w ise w e only k n o w th at th e bishop o f the to w n ran k ed as no. 21 b elo w Stauropolis (A phrodisias).57
T h e rem ains o f th e new ly excavated b u ild in g reflect th e h isto ry o f H alikarnas
sos from th e 4 th c e n tu ry B .C . to the 5th c e n tu ry A.D . T h e earliest architectural re
m ains probably derive from M aussollos’
re-fo u n d a tio n o f H alikarnassos d u rin g the 4th c e n tu ry B .C ., and are im p o rta n t as evidence for this p a rt o f th e to w n having also b een in clu d ed in the o rth o g o n a l to w n plan. A lth o u g h H alikarnassos was seem ingly a re m o te place d u rin g th e Im perial p e rio d and Late A ntiquity, th ere w ere ap
p arently still aristocratic patrons to c o m m ission, and resources to p roduce, lu x u ri
ous buildings like the o ne in q u estio n d u r
in g the 5 th ce n tu ry A .D .58 Since o u r k n o w led g e o f the dom estic architecture o f the to w n is o therw ise lim ited to N e w to n ’s m id 19th c e n tu ry excavations and som e u n p u b lish ed rep o rts,59 th e excavated stru c
ture is ex trem ely im p o rta n t fo r o u r u n d e r
standing o f the dom estic architecture o f H alikarnassos d u rin g Late A ntiquity.
* T h e English was revised by P eter Spring.
T h e p h otographs, figs. 3-13, w ere m ade by Jacob Isager.
N O T E 53
Cic. I''err. II. 1.19.49; Cic.
QFr. 1.1.8.
N O T E 54
y itr . 2 .8.10-15; jep p esen 1989.
N O T E 55
Tac. A nn. 4.55. cf. n o te 31.
n o t e 56
S tiern o n 1990, col. 141;
H o n ig m an n 1939, 32, no.
687.10.
N O T E 57
M iddle o f the 7th cen tu ry AD, S tiern o n 1990, col.
143.
N O T E 5 8
T h e inscription o f the tab
ula ansata seems to indicate th at the building was raised from the gro u n d , see Isag
er, below 211-221.
N O T E 59
Two fu rth er houses o r vil
las from Halikarnassos are know n: one was revealed d u rin g the con stru ctio n o f a house in the m iddle o f the to w n in 1990. T h e mosaics w ere rem oved and transferred to the B o d ru m M useum . A n o th e r villa, likewise con tain in g mosaic floors, is situated near the coast o f the Salmacis prom ontory.
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