• Ingen resultater fundet

PDF A Better Way to Help by Re inu enting P sy ch olo gy

N/A
N/A
Info
Hent
Protected

Academic year: 2024

Del "PDF A Better Way to Help by Re inu enting P sy ch olo gy"

Copied!
38
0
0

Indlæser.... (se fuldtekst nu)

Hele teksten

(1)

Y l .

Introductlon

A Better Way to Help by Re inu enting P sy ch olo gy

Turning Mainstream Psychology -tJpside Down

The human troubles of our times demand the attention of

psychology. Xfe seem caught in a web of social crises, powerless to gen-

erate effective solutions. Drugs and violence seem to pervade small

towns'' suburbs, and cities alike; homelessness abounds; the middle-class

lives with job insecurity and worry that their health insurance will be dis-

continued; the public school system seems to be in a state of disarray and

ineffectiveness; alienated white males join paramilitary militias devoted

ro racism, anti-Semitism, and violent resistance to government authority;

and "culture wars" proliferate over issues like abortion, prayer in

schools, school choice, gay rights, and welfare dependence. Overseas,

two disturbing, antidemocratic trends appear to dominate more and more each day: tribalism, with different ethnic, racial, and religious groups murderously pitted against one another; and globalism, with the homogenrzation of cultures and economies across countries created by international corporations, undermining distinctive ethnic traditions and identities.r.2

How can psychology help? For the last one hundred rwenty years, since Wilhelm'W'undt's establishment of the first scientific psychological labo- ratory, mainstream psychology has primarily offered one answer, building upon two positivist assumptions from such natural sciences as physics, chemistry, and biology. These state (a) that the search for general theory

precedes application, and (b) that general theory proceeds analytically by

breaking complex processes into small parts and individual variables; de-

veloping broad, abstract laws to correlate these variables; and then ex- perimentally testing these laws in controlled, laboratory settings.

This book argues a radical proposal: to improve psychology's capac-

(2)

:qf,rBeseJ usrloqoJlB Jo elard

rElnJrupd E Jo rusrtrrtrJf, Jer.{ ul

alelnf,rue

pue frtBtuerp dlrelnfrtred ueeq

ser{ r{sF{rw ereqrpg e^rtetuaserdau

(('sJoop uado q8norqt dezrr.rraql

Surddoqc,, .(q snor^qo aqr

Joqpleq ol uo8.re[ Bursn

pue .,'znou>1 dpea-r

-le o^\

lEr{AA SUrU;guoc;o de,rvr alrsuadxa

dJeA.

e,, sB ,.,'3urf,aag uap103,,

e

crlqnd agr 8ur,rr8 se

o,..sp1eg f,UrtuJrJs Jaqlo uanr8

suorterrdo;dde r.lJreas

-er eql;o Surrrrasapun alSSopuooq

lenlfellarur uE,, ur Bur8e8ua sE ,,,.eJue1

-rJequr srq srapuenbs etueilolrp

eqr a>lrl lauou

xet esn oq.&\ sraqf,reaseJ

;o f11oy a8ulr; qsrlooJ

eql,, sE stsrtuarJs lerlos

Burqrnsep ,qr.reesar oruerf,s

Ierros ;o Surpun; aql

uo {f,ene IBtuorJ e

pa8ervr a^pr{_f,rlerf,oueq pue

uecrlgndag qrog-ssa.r8uo3 Jo sreqrueur

eruos leql Bursrrd.rns lou

sr tJ

'luelaleJJr Jo .snorlqo ,lualsrsuofur

Jeqlra eq

or dllecrdr(]

uaas .,{pnls JsglJnJ;o dqr"rorvt,,

puB .,anrtsa83ns,, se peqrJJs

-ap elrq^\

',{rl.{^ sSurpuy lerrrrdua Jo

plro/!\ B pue fsrrlsrtels pue sraq

-runu xalduor Jo plro^\

e luortce upunq Bur.,(pnrs

roJ suorlrpuoJ .,{tort

-oqPI alelnurs ot slorluoc

lerrSolopoqreu qtr^\

uorledncroe.rd;o p1.ro.vr

e'.ay1depdra,,ra Jo drrxalduor dnr;8-dnru aqt

ruort paqlerep .sruJal f,rlsru

-eqJeu 'asn.rtsge ur palrsod

serroer{t leror^eqeq 1e-raua8

Jo plro.^a

((rgrlue uarlp dlarald eqr ol to selqnorl 'seturr rno s.readde rBq/N e st -Irs,, 'eullstrd

-ruoJ sr leql tuleeJ e surees

dlruanba.r; eJuerf,s lerJos f,ruepBJE

Jo uretuop luaruurelo8;o suorllrq uorlepunoJ pue te1 'srEIIop aql roJ aqt 'uos.raddel

Jo sparpunq Jo luerulselur

eqr ro1 sanrlod saprn8

dllenuue r.{rreaser

Ietr .rofeu roJ af,rnose.r puv Bur,(pnrs lenos Sursserppe -Soloqrdsd 'sualqo-rd

e se '1e-raue8

ul eluerf,s ler)os rueeJtsurgru

rltr,,l{ Buole t8oloqrr(sd aas

sre

-peel tuaruurelo8 pue rrlqnd

er{t Jo tuau8as lerluelsqns

e ler{l enrt sr

tJ

{lezrrte;n8g pue dllerarry qtog-seser

o} u./!\op Burua8

/q PItg aqt Surtuelular

uaql pue

"{8o1oqr,{sd Surlrn.rlsuorap ,(11ecrper

.ro;

suosear lerrSoloruatsrda pue IelrlJerd

Burlladuor ere orer{l tEqr

^^.oqs IIr^^ Surlnqrrtuor aqt ot Jo uortnlos 'srualqo.rd ayrl-1eer 'troqs uI slql uI I Toog

ur e^rlf,eJJe eq ol

sl.rod.rnd reqt r{rJeasa.r lerr8oloqrdsd

;o slurod Burpua

pue Surlrels stll eq

Plnoqs-sseupeppequa Ientxetuor pue lrlxalduor

rtrualsdstllntu rlaql IIe ul-seseJ

lpnlJe reqr san8re ,{qa.raqr

u8rpe-red

rrleu8e.rd aql 'suortenlrs

Ienlre ur sallasrueqt luesard

,(11erlrsr1oq daqr

se stuelgoJd qrrrvr Ieep

tsntu qJreeser pue droaql

,la.toelow .puEr{

]E rual

-qo;d aql dq peltarrp uerlt ere

r{rreaser pue droaqt reqr

pue ,ts-rg seruo)

-uollEnlls leJol B uI ruelqord rulnrrl rcd

e e^los ot poeu

eqt-uorterrldde

reqr Puetuol IIL A J

'rusrleruSe;d pue usrurepoutsod;o seare

eql ur stueur

-dolanap lecrqdosollgd ruacar uodn

peseg "u,/!\op aprsdn lepour

rueorts

-ulelu aql urnl lsnru

elt 'sJSt-tJ pue saItlnJUJIp

ueunq sserppe dlaq or

drr uott)nPo.ttul

7 |

(3)

Introduction | 1

1 - t - I T

Not one rummy has been taken off of Baltimore streets by this research.

Not one drunken husband has been dissuaded from beating his wife or one

drunken mother from beating her child. These research projects are like ex-

otic, expensively mounted butterfly collections, hidden away in vaults and

only exhumed from time to time to display to other collectors of the rare

and unusual in mutual reaffirmation of their elite status.u

It is tempting to join these politicians and see a conspiracy among so_

cial scientists to defraud the public of billions of dollarc in th. pursuit of

intellectual games for "mutual reaffirmation of their elite status.,, How- ever' this book contends that the positivist, natural science scientific model predominates today, not as a result of corrupt or fraudulent indi-

vidual professionals,, but rather as a result of academic psychology,s con-

tinuing, misplaced faith in the philosophy of mod.rri.-. This "philoso-

phy has gained tremendous intellectual and political favor ou., ,h. pu*

one hundred years because of its intimate association with movemenrs, such as the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution, that underlie contemporary civilized life in developed societies.

Modernism-the natural-science-centered worldview deriving from

the Enlightenment-is a seductively aftractive belief system in its promise of clear, absolute, "objective,, answers in a complex, ambigu_

ous' troubled world. However, modern psychology's d.liu.ry on its promise to date has been scant at besr, especially in light of the major

resources devoted to it, such as the federal government's annual invest-

ment of at least $r.8 billion for psychological and related social science research.t

Of course, the lack of dramatic results to date and the divergence of psychological conce ptualizations of human behavior from l"y .Jr..p,,r- alizations are not per se damning of the field. The response of main_

stream psychology to its meager results is to urge patience. The field re_

minds us rhar it is holding a philosophical promissory note with the American public. Based on the discipline's underlying, modernistic phi-

losophy of science and knowledge, psychology has promised that invest_

ment in the laboratory-based, theory-testing research model of posi_

tivism will eventually pay off with the discovery of general laws that can then be deductively applied to solve specific social problems.s Some be_

lieve it is still possible that the special language and perspective of psy_

chology will one day spawn a "psychological Newton,, or a ,,psycholog_

ical Einstein" who will develop laws that gain broad consensus in the dis-

cipline concerning their distinct and superior capacity to predict and

t -

S

c c I

-l T S

(4)

-slp e se dSoloqrdsd

;o rrnleu rqr Jo

8ur>lurqrar lPluauePunJ e roJ

aSets

eql slas leqt ,brs.la^IP

Pue a8ueqr uJePoulsod;o

luetuuoJl^ue slql SI 1I

'uo)uawv )aquaps

leu.rnoI snorSrlsard aqr Jo

rotlpa roluas e ,(q

x'atuans Jo prE aqlPaPn

Iooq

€ ur pauorlsanb Suraq

sl aJII urepou Jo

srsBq aql ue^O Puv

'tusllernl

-lnf,rllnu pue dlrs.ra,rrp Surzrseqdua JIPsotu

*lao9 P€les', e

Jo euo olul

pafiueqr seq dlarcos uEJIJeLuy

;o fdaruoJ ,,lod 8utl1atu,,

sr'leruJoJ elf

qrr-r-dSolouqJat e uI uolleruJoJul Jo uoISIAo.rd

aqf pue '>1-rolt'Iueel 'uotl

-ezlleJluetep sazlseqdua feql aJnflnf

((UEuIs,, 'd.re.rodtuetuoJ e ol

eJnl

-1nl ,,r(.rol)e1,'lertqr.re.rarq 'd.rntueJ-rllueolaulu e

tuoJJ alotu ol Palue1

-ural Suraq aJe uorlef,npe

pue Sseulsnfl ir'.{lIruEJ .,1€rulou,,

E Jo trIJqnJ

ulqll^\ rqt

(Ie;n1eu PuE PeldoPe) uarPllql

rlaql pue saldnor uElqsel

pue ,le7 Surpnlcur dq

pafue.r.ura.r Suraq st ,,.,{1tureJ,, er{I rr'SJead

arrg-.{txrs

lsed aqf ra^o pedola^aP

e^eq leql suprSo-rd lueruurelo8

;o eJnlJnrls

puB ernleu JrsEq eqr

8ur{ro^\er pue Sur4urr{]ar dq perua^ulsr

Suraq

sI luatuuJe^oo (('palue^uleJ,, uat{l

PuE (.pelf,nJlsuotraP,, Sutaq aJe

suoll

-ntrlsul :rle aqt uI

SI a8ueql IeJIPe.r 'd.rlunor

slql ur depol

'suolllpuof,

Ietol uo Sulpuadap uoIlPIreA IEaJB

qlla 'paleutruopa;d

a.'req dtrs'rantp

pue e8ueqr 'srea.,( df-roy

lsed aqf JaAo elEJ

Sutsea.rcul ue le 'lalaltol-1 ., 's dn o.

r8

Jruqta

leuolteu pue

Suoue sef,ueJeJJIP IelISoloaPI

roleru

pua ol

ue pu€

plroi\\ rrlt punore serf,errouep

Ieraqrl snoeueSouoq ol Pesl

IIII!\

ssaro.rd slqf tegf patulelf,o-rd

aneq slslurapory 'qJreeser ef,ueIJS

lelf,os

q8no.rqf .(paJeAofSIP,, aJe leql

eJnteu uetunq lnoqe

S.41\EI IESJaAIUn Jo

uortprrldde leuorler er{t uo

pespq ssarSo.rd Ielf,os tSolouqral

PelEIrossB

pue eJuarJS JO qrzvror8

eqt qrrl\

ssa.rSo.rd lplf,os Sutsearcul PasIuIoJd

seq

us lu Ja po ru 'lu at uu af q8 rlu

ar E

ll eJ uI S'L la tc

Pa os

zll elJ ls np ut 'u .r als a/

6.

ur suortntllsul d.re.loduraluof, aql

sellrePun lel{l {qdosopqd

JI}sIura

-poru aqt Jo anbltuf Peorq s(ulsluraPourlsod

Jo a^IlJelJar ere Sur4urqf

rrtsluJaporu s.dSoloqcdsd tu€eJlsuleru Jo

senbltuf, S(tusluJePoulsod

.sualqo.rd lerf,os Surssa.rppe dlarrrtcaJJa erolu

JoJ n(tuslteu8e.rd

Lrrepoutsod ut pePPoqua dllerrqdosolrqd'laporu

paseq-asef, (ellleurel

-lE uE Sursodo.rd roJ

uollePunoJ P se uaql asn Pue

sonblluf, esaql a;oldxa

rlr.^A {oog srql

dSoloqrdsd luPeJlsuIeIU Jo sanblllrJ

0r((uJePoulsod" ruoJJ

Surrrr-rap suoseeJ 'etou d.rossttuo;d

aqf Pulqeq ,{qdosolrqd aqf

Jo ((lIParJ

rue qlleJ IInJ,, eql

uoltsenb ol suosee;

Surmor8 eJe arel{l tala,u,o11

6'slePou,(roreueldxo Jeqlo JeAo re./!\od

rrsearrul dllerrleuerp

I{1I.{\ Sutuotlrunt IEIf,os Pue

IBnPI^lPul lorluof, uon)npotlul 1 n

(5)

e a s e d r and 'ir.ing i will r n a l - rdern r i s t i c m o d - r s i n

n i s m : a n d .rtion o u g h

] C C S S

r d a n r h n i c : a n d I o c a l

;ntu- r n t i s

a n d p a s t ' a n d r the r e i n -

c u l - I i z a - - r i c h n g e d

icul- r o o k r r n a l s the

d i s -

Introdwction | 5

cipline. And it is from this environment that a new, case-based, pragmatic

psychology springs. To provide an initial understanding of postmod- ernism and pragmatic psychology's place in it, a whirlwind tour of post- modernism is in order.

The Emergence of the Pragmatic Paradigm f'rom Postmodernism

\7hat's \7hat in Postmodernism

A core idea in postmodernism is that we are always interpreting our

erperienced reality through a paLr of conceptual glasses-glasses based

on such factors as our present personal goals in this particular situation,

our past experiences, our values and attitudes, our body of knowledge,

rhe nature of language, present trends in contemporary culture, and so

forth" It is never possible to take the glasses off altogether and view the

ivorld as it "really is," with pure objectivity. All we can do is change

qlasses and realize that different pairs provide different pictures and per-

spectives of the world. Vhich glasses we "should" use in an individual

situation depends not on which pair purports to correspond best to the

"real" external world, but rather on a variety of other criteria, which are

an ongoing subject of discussion and dialogue. Because postmodernism

posits that there are no clearly superior, that is, "privileged" criteria, it is

not surprising that there several variants of postmodernism that differ ac-

cording to which criteria should pr:edominate. All these variants,, how-

ever, can be understood in terms of six major themes emphasized by post-

modern epistemology.,t

The first of these themes is "foundationlessnessr" the notion that there

rs no objectively knowable external reality that forms a foundation to knowledge, but rather that all knowledge is partial and limited to one of

rnany possible perspectives', consisting of constructions based on human

organizing capacities. A second theme is "fragmentariness," the idea that

the real is not a single, integrated system, but rather a collection of dis-

r-rnited,, fragmented, disparate elements and events. Another theme is

"constructivism," the notion that human knowledge is not a mirrored re-

flection of reality, but rather a constructed interpretation of the undiffer-

e n t i a t e d " f l u x " o f e r p e r i e n c e .

(6)

sz'rusrlpru8e.rdoau slq8rlg8rq usruJapourtsod_.(

f, rteur

-8etd,,3ur11er dldurrs rue J

tpr1.4n Jo-(6f,rleu8e-rdoau,, ,.,eArlplu

rUJv,, pue

,.!slrlnaueruJel{ 1err3o1o1uo sazrseqdue rusruJapoulfsod

.,1"rr3o1otuo,, ,.lErrJuJ,, ..![usrarllnlls sazrsegdure rusruJeporulsod r.!,,(roaql IBJTITJJ -uoJ Pue'ssautreluaurSer;'ssausseluorlppunoJ-satuegl errrlrntlsuof,

-eP eJou 'eeJr{l fsJg

eqf sazrseqdure usruJepoutsod ..1eortda>1s,,

:azrseqd

-ua daql setueqt aqt

to rlrlq^A Jo sturet

ul pereltuararrrp eq upr

r.usrura urqtrA {ro^\eureq eqt eseqt Jo ,saruaqt xrs saddr ;no; -Pourtsod ;o

rz'stlnsar pepuetur rrar{l parnpord

e^eq leql sarrlce;d

eqf alngulslP pue 'azrue8to

,lra11or ot saAJaS eJuerf,s

,es;onrun er{l

Jo eJue .pasr^ar sr to pEelsuJ e Suraq roJ r{f,rpas s,4\el Surllrapun sglnrl pup

-rJs Jo asod-rnd aqr

q8noq\e'uoila Jgrruarfs rot

s./!\olle ursrJeru8e;doa5l

0z'suortJrpa.rd lecrla.roeqt

ueqt JaqleJ seluarradxa snor,ta.rd

dq paur.ro;

-ur uauo tsour aJe

tlnsal peJrsap E tnoqe

Furrq ot repJo ul

ons.rnd ot suorl

-f3 r{Jrr{.Aa Jo ssrroql

,{ep,{.ra,ra rlar{r 'plro1!\

eql ur sasodrnd qsrlduorce

pue pue crlsrsdrlos .Jr]srlrlBle.r saop] . . .tusrteru8e;doa111 tdactu [rou s8uraq uerunH e reqr JIe{u op aurldnsrp urapoulsod ser.{ slraford ataldruor'salroqr eq ot :spro.^a s,auroqSul{lod

pleuoc u1 'sasodrnd pue

s1eo3 esoql

eAarqre dleq or .,{trredec str Jo

srural ur a8pe1,ta,our

to lpoq e }o

,,qtnr1,', ryroads legl sdno-r8 ueunq uI op 'aaeq lJeJ lI pue eql selenlB^a

sasod ,txaluoc sesnJoJ rusrter.use;doau eql uo sleo8 Ienlxetuot -'rnd pue

ler pef,uerradxa .rno sr .&r1eal petf,nrtsuor dllenos lerntlnJ ur -rrolsrq pue

;o lsE-J oqt sr to Jrueqt SurrdaJJV ,,.rusrteu8eJdoeu,, A\erA eqr qJntu lBtll

aqr ern* s uor rn q' I

s a'r u eru"

u'"i ji 1'i;1,::'ffi

ilHlf.,,.., :i,1in

sessef,ord reqt SurpuetsJepun Jo uotlelardralul pue lou aJe

uortru8ora.r

8,, sl sJrtneueruraq lerrSololuo

,sp.ro,lrr s(sses uJ .oJueuadxa

uetunr{ Jo

sluenlrlsuoJ Jrseg aql Otur

rueqr stuJotsuett pue sJrlnaueruJerl

Jo spoqtatu so rorleqaq lerrSoloruo '$at saler sJltnauatu.raq rrllleue aqr

ueunq ol uo pesnroJ 'stxal Ielllqlq relel Pue se^\ lI ol PaPualxa 'slxal IIP ueql puB

tr

'i11errru1 'uotlelardtalul

Jo ttv Jo af,uarJs eql sr

.(srrlneuaurrJlj,, .Jeuepeo

pue ;a38apleH Jo ((srrtneueurar{

1err8o1oluo,, or{l sr aueql qfJg V

,,'altlsnI pue i.{rrnba trru8rp

IPIf,os PJe.4Aol Sutat-rls Jlaql

ur Jaltpl aqt 8ur-ra,trodrua

;o 'pasrqcueryuesrp

pue paSelue^pesrp aql lsure8e

dlltoqrne ur asoql Surnrd

rerltre ,sar-ro;

ieJnllnl Pue '1ert1r1od 'Jlulouof,a

uanrJp sr lq

uorleJeua8-a8pa1,4Aou{

Jle lEql '/v\aIA lslxJew-oau

aql ,.troaqr leJrrrJl,, sr

etuerlr r{ilno;

y

uo tp np or ru

I I

g

(7)

. h a t a l l . ultural

ed and J social :er and

nitially nd then rnalytic :ltuents : s i s " a l r e n o t

ute the r much histori- r d p u r - rres the rchieve

:o be

) t e c t s :'r ac- :t ln-

' of sci-

1 truths ute the

s t m o d - r e v e m -

ore de- d con- reoryl23 :uticsl2a

" p r a g -

Introduction I z

The Pragmatic Paradigm as a Response to Psychology's

" C u l t u r e . W a r s "

\Tithin psychology,, it is mainly the skeptical and critical visions of

postmodernism that have gained prominence. These visions are in many

.-lramaric ways an explicit rebellion against the hegemony of modernist,

positivist psychology. The dialectical debate between positivist psychol-

ogy and these versions of postmodernism-psychology's version of the

"culture 1y21s"-[as been strongly polarizing the field and splitting it

rpart.26 Now psychologists frequently battle against one another rather

rhan against human distress and social conflict. For example,, critical

postmoderns are viewed by positivists as blatantly antiscientific in their

ideological politicalization of all psychological issues; while positivists

are viewed by critical postmoderns as strongly and naively aligned with

perpetuating the political status quo of contemporary oppressive, corpo-

rate capitalism.

Positivists are angered by skeptical postmoderns. Emphasizing the limi-

rations of knowledge, skeptical postmoderns put their energies into the

provocative deconstruction of accepted realities,, ideas, and institutions.

\X/hile this can have a salutary effect upon unfreezing ossified and destruc-

tive belief systems, and while this process sometimes results in a playful, ca-

cophonous, flamboyant celebration of the diversity of human images and

ideas, ultimately the skeptical postmodern does not explicitly propose more

useful belief systems.2T In short, the purpose of the skeptical postmodern is

deconstructive, not constructive. While skeptical postmodernism's dra-

matic, confrontive qualities have helped it to achieve notice in its clash with

positivist psychology, these qualities have exacerbated polarrzation within the field. The choice presented by positivism versus skeptical postmod-

ernism Seems to many a choice between a "formal,," "technical," "objec-

tive," "rigorousr" arld ultimately "socially irrelevant" psychology' on the

one hand, anda "subjectiver" "personalr" "deconstructiver" "criticalr" and

ultimately "nihilistic" psychology, on the other.28

Not surprisingly, a related dialectic occurs between skeptical and crit-

ical postmoderns. The skeptic condemns the critical theorist for propos-

ing foundational, "essentialist," "totalizing" political values, not ac- knowledging the contextually limited, constructivist nature of them;

while the critical theorist castigates the skeptic for radical relativism and

associated political nihilism.2e

.ilii

ir{:{:e

:.1.-,ir

iii ,

il

(8)

eBrBIue ol sr looq srql Jo

asod-rnd luelrodur uS rr'lel

aqr uo usrurapou

-tsod Ipf,rlrrf, pue lerrldals

'1e.raqr1 dyletrper pue 'tg8rr aqt

uo rusr,rrtrsod

elrtelJasuoc'leuortrp€Jl fllerrlsru-repotu uealuaq uorlrsod

tsrrtuar,e1p

-PItu e lno 8ur>lels se PO^aeIA

Jg ueJ rusrteru8e;d 'sturat

leorrrlod uI 'eJnl

-eu ueurnr1 Jo s^\el

1e-raua8 patrod.rnd relolun

ot tou ,sdno.r8

Ierf,os patsn

-trs .{11e.rnrlnr pue f11err.ro1srq

'telnrrr;ed;o s1eo8 ue.r8o-rd pr^rrap

d11err

-l€JJoruap eql aAerr{JE ol pesn

a,re daql :asod.rnd lsr,rrtrsoduou

e qtrl\

rnq

'pa.(oldtua ere rusrnrlrsod Jo

slde)uoJ pug sarSolopoqreu ofuerJs

leJnleu

eql snql 'w8rponj

qtrtt4tsoQ er{r Jo stuetuelarr{tre lentderuor pue

Ipr

-rSoyopoqlau aql qlm-w8tpawd

)nnauaLunq eql se dno;8 ul ol

parraJ

-er reryEarer{-rusruraporutsod lerrSolotuo pue

'lerrtr,rr 'lerrldeIs Jo sseu

-eJp^\e anle^

pue srq8rsur lerrSoloutalsrda eqt

saurquoJ r1Jeordde srql

'e^IlPuralle a,trle;8etul ue Surdolalap

/q sre^\

erntlnt leJrrlelerp s,d8o

-loqrdsd puarsuerl ol sleas

dSologrdsd ur w7tpanj

tlaruSotQ aq7 'uorlJE PUE Jor^erl

-eq ueunq uodn uo{el

eq uef,tpr{t se^rtradsrad alqrssod

1o Leue tse^ eql

;o dlar.re.t e a-roldxa

tpqr seepl pue serroer{l

1err8o1oqr.{sd;o dlddns qrr.r

e padola,r.ep a^Er{ slsrartrsod

'uortrppe uI 'Eueuouaqd

lerrSoloqrdsd 8ur

-Jnseeru Jo sartrxaldruor eqt

tnoqe Surlurql snorua8ur pue

'lerrtuf ,snoJo

-3u.ro; sprepuels q8rq ras

teql sarSolopoqlaru elrlualur pue

pete)rtsrqdos

.,(llecr.rreruoqrdsd rno pelels e^Er.{ slsr,trtrsod

aqt la8eaur .,(lSurluroddesrp

a.re dSoloqrdsd tsrnrtrsod ;o

s.read eseql IIe Jo enle^ Ierrpe.rd

aqr q8noqr

ua^E dSoloqrdsd pazrueS.ro ;o

pleg eqt Surleunuop ,,{lyerruouof,e

pue

dllerrrrlod lyrts 'puno.r8 -rraql

pleq a^eq stsrnrtrsod rqr

re1 'slraford r{rrees

-a.r lerrSoyoqrdsd lnoq8norqt Suruun;

sepua8e Jrruouof,e pue lecrrrlod

eql ot sn pezrtrsues eAEq surepoutsod

lerrluJ aql pue 'd8o1oqr,{sd

lsrlrl

-rsod ,(q pareraua8 a8pal^\oul

eqt uo suouetrurrl lelueuepunJ

are arer{l

leqt turod Jrar{t apptu

e^eq srllda>1s

'surnlar Surgsrulurlp aql

;o lurod

B par{)eer seq s.read

,{rroJ rsed aqr ra,ro

,{Soloqrdsd ur ursruroporursod

Ief,rtrJl pue 'rusruJepotutsod lerrrdals

'tusr.l,rlrsod Suoue aleqap aql

'sura)uoJ lerJos Surssa;d s,depol ;o;8urrr1os

ualqo.rd lerrlrerd uo

srseqduaJp € ur sllnsar qtnrl ,,lerrqdosollqd,,

(crtaqtsa '1err-rrdua-Ertxe

uo snJot s(rusruJaporulsod lecrSololuo'tarraznog

Or'sJoqlne uJepou

-lsod lerrtrrf, pue lerrrda>1s.(ueu

Suoue arue.{oqupg leJrroler.lr pue

uorl

-ero,to.rd lerrSolorualsrda pre./!\ot fruapual

aqt r{tr1\\

slsertuof, teql dtrlrru

-nq lerrSolouralsrda ue Surzrseqdua

'a8pay.tnoul;o .{rrn8lqrue pue frrxald

-Luof, leorqdosolrgd aqr sessaJts

rusrurepoulsod yecrSololuo'rusra.rlrsod

qlr.^^ rrlrelprp eqt ur

dn lq8ner ssel uaeq

seq snqr pue 'rusrurapoutsod

lerr

-trrJ pue lerrlde4s ueql

elrteqruof, ssel sr rusruJapourtsod lerrSolorug

uotpnpo4ul I g

(9)

. n t - ,'ith )m- h u -

r C a -

) st- on r s i s c a l i a 1 a t r s i - : h e r e -

llv

e n t r e

l l v

; o . _ ' D

rr- a o f e -

Introduction I g rhe number of psychologists who are attracted to join this centrist posi-

tion, and to encourage the establishment of disciplinary structures-iour-

nals, funding for research projects, and training programs-to help insti- tutionalize pragmatism within organized psychology. 12

The call for a pragmatic centrist position between the dialectical po- larities of "leftist" skeptical and critical postmodernism versus "rightist"

positivism resonates with the academic "culture wars" on college cam-

puses and on the broader political scene. The intellectual historian Rus-

sell Jacoby and the political scientist Benjamin Barber write about how the culture wars, as reflected in the ideological battles on today's cam- puses' have misled America, diverting public attention from the real problems corroding education and society:

Conservatives, liberals, and radicals argue over which books should be

taught in schools; meanwhile few books are read. . . . Faculty and students

dispute which words violate the rights of which groups; while society turns

increasingly violent. . . . Citizens wrangle over multiculturalism . . . ; mean-

while the irresistible power of advertising and television converrs multicul-

turalism into a monoculture of clothes, music, and cars.33

Conservatives want to teach the canon, critics want to teach multicul-

turalism: \who wants to teach democracy? Private agendas abound: \fho

will teach the public agenda?3a

On a more philosophical level, in the words of the anthropologist Nancy

Scheper-Hughes, it is time to resist the present forces of political polar-

rzation, when "the cultural right is demanding moral and epistemologi- cal certainties and the cultural left is calling for a capitulation to the ul-

timate nihilism of postmodernism. "35

Supporting the Beleaguered Practitioner

The practical value of psychology as a discipline results from the activi- ties of applied and professional psychologist practitioners. Broadly speaking, one can distinguish at least two models of professional prac-

tice, paralleling the epistemologies of positivism and pragmatism.

The Modern, Positivist Model

In the modern, positivist model, practitioners are appliers of "basic"

knowledge. Donald Petersons6 terms this model "professional activity as

(10)

l

P LIJrr.{,'!\

UI dlrunrutuoJ eqt 'tcrrlsrp

Iooqf,s Jo IooqJS e

'ssep e 'tuapnls

Ienpr^rpur uB aq UEJ tuerlJ aqt

.ureruop leuorlufnpe aqt

ur ,alduexa rog

,tlatros B uele ro 'dltunruuloJ 'uorleztue1to

'dno-r8 'lenpr,rrpur ue Jq

upf,

luerlr aq1 '(arn8g agl

ur V tueuodruor) a8ueqr

,ro; sleo8 pue sr.uelqo.rd

s(tuarlJ eqt pue ((JuarlJ,, eql qrr./v\

suets Iapou eqr dlyergnads

erory '(

ue 1 r

uo d

-uor) sleo8 a8ueqr s(luarlr

aqt urelle Surdlaq ur

ssauelrrraue sr

Jo uotl 1o tuo,t8 lueuoduror) ,(V stuauoduor) sarrlres stuasa.rd oq^a ,()-g E qtr^{ uaqt r{Jrr{rrn roJ errsep q8no.lqr seo8 salreJer 'a8ueqr -onpna ue -otd e t-uaq) e :slred rofeu aarql

seq Iepou aqr 'u.nnoqs

sy 'z'r arnSg ul

paluas

-a.rd sr tr Jo eurltno uE

pue ,,,,{.rrnbur paurldrlsrp sB

dtr,rrtre yeuorsse;o;d,,

Iapou srqt sller uosraled.r.op

d11en1re sreuortrtre.rd lerr8oloqrfsd

urelr

dueu ter{^ Jo uorldaJuot lerrSolorualsrda

ue seprlo.rd ,1apou rrteru

-8e;d 'uraporulsod aqr dSoloqrdsd

parldde to

^\ar^

rlrteuratle JLII

IsPoW f,rlptu8erd 'u.rapourtsod eqJ

'a8pa1zu,oul yerrSoloqt.{sd to sseupeppeqtua

Ientxrtuor aqt dla,,rrluelsqns a;e ot luelale-r-rr d.role;oqeluou eql to asnEf,eq-plJo,/!\

asrrd

-Jalue JI{l Jo sllnsal arll pue

l,,eJnleu ueunq Jo s.uel

Jrssq,) ((Jalotsrp,,

ol elqlssod tou sI

]I-Pe./L\eg tyet?olorualsrde sr tJp

oJ sr reuorlrtce.rd

ar{t r{Jri{.,rl.

uodn ((af,uerJs .,f,1S89,,

aqt :ploJolu aJE ,Go1oqc,(sd

parldde yo

.ry\el^ lstntttsod aqr qlIA

srualqo-rd aql 'arrrtradsrad uJepoulsod

e ruo-rg 'saJnpaJo td pazr.

-lpuorleredo ,(1q3rq 8ur,{1dde uerrrur{ret

e se pe.^^rr^ sr

tq8r.r eqt uo lsr8o

-loqrdsd parldde aqt pue

'a-rn8g er{t Jo ryel aqt uo reqrreeser rrseg

aql dq

auoP sr

>lro.^ penlp^

pue SurSuslleql tsoru aqt

r{rrqa ur ,1apou rBrurl

B

sl slql 'sluarlr qtr.Lr

flrra;rp 3ur1-ro^\

srauortrtre.rd leuorss{o.rd ,,(q palld

-de ueqr Jre r{Jrr{./nt

'(Surpear Surqceal .ro1 sanbruqral

a8en8uel aloq^A ro

s>lf,enE rtued -ro;,{de.raql Jolleqaq-alrlruSoJ

((pezrlenue{u,, se qrns) sar8

-olour{f,et sate.raua8 urnt ur

r{Jlr{^a ,qr.reasa.r perldde or

speel qllr{^A ,ernl

-eu uetunr{

Jo s^,\el 8urd1-rapun aqt

Sur.ra,rocslp {q surSag r{rreesar rrsEq

'urrtoqs sV 'r'r ern8y ur petuesa-rd

sr lr Jo aurltno srq pue

,,,af,uarJs parldde

:aqsrlqnd aql Jo uorssrurred ,(q palur_rdag

'(166r uosralod uor;)

atuerrs paryddy se ,ftrnr1ty

leuorssaJord .r.r atn&g

uoq)npotlul

or I

(11)

Introduction I r r

r g g r ) .

hown, t n n a - r n o l o -

rtacks en ap- this is

; done r-chol-

i o n a l - r view ch the ble to enter-

u s e o f

prag- many model rs pre-

client t pro- '.'alua-

i c o m -

Iient's client rciety.

; i d u a l iich a

(!

6

H

H H H

6 E

EE

d

E

-

-crt)

!

' 6

ta=

L

-I

-t-

c\

i

A) L

!

-

L

-a

E 6

L

--

'- ' -

a

. =)

=

a

L

"i

f-.1

\

oa r r

(g

E

G s

d

=

L

= r =

4 A

(12)

-Ilrerd oqr qlrq^{ uodn

serpnrs aspf, pareln.,,nJrp Jo

as'q?rep

l'urerur lrolsrg s(JauorJ ,eu.roq3ur1104 ,uos zrugrrrs pue leuorsseJo.rd leuosrad;o eqr ezrseq_dua qtrq,,\t ,elualradxo Jo aruelrodurr ue sdolaaap -tlrerd oqr -ralad sB r{f,ns srolrrlv\

'lapour rrreruSe.rd eql urqlrlv\

Suluorlru"l

"rq]1X a8ueqr Burrep at{l uoltdafuoJ eqt ur sortsrralJBJeql Jaqto e Jo reuortr]feJd eJe osef, sr uortdetruof, Pa-/\'lollot seq pa-rrnbar dydreqs os lllun tlleuorsef,ro .[arn8y aulrl lPql ur 1 luauodruor] aqr 'ranalroq qtr,/!\ lua1slsrr63ur ue rer{l ro'[arn8g eql -olu{uoJJe Surprn8 eqt ro seruorrno

"qi,r, f rueuodruorl

x1r.,o ;o dpoq ot Bur.rq alqereduror txau aqt .eser aql saruairad"a aqt dllensn seq Jauorrrlf,Brd patelrturssp sr a:uarradxa -tzra-rd parurnurnrlp aql urqtr^\

uer asur qruE reuortrtrerd aqr sppe sarpnts aql or Jo arols aq a8paFvroul JI{s ro

-rtce.rd eqt roJ aruarradxa Burureal e

sl eser r{f,pe ,acrtrerd

,rdorJ],;o,t

oo,.'[)-H] per{rear leur uorrenle^a Irlun anurluoJ alqeldaJJE uP sr etuof,lno

pue ,uorlc'

.uor1 peqsrld s;p;r; ,qr l leuorrrppg reuorrlrrerd eql ro suoJJe rer{unJ pr" ,rfr1, lou eJE uer uorrpnre^. aql reprsuoJ asrurord suo}Ja raql suorsrf,op ea.r8e ,r,rorlrlr"rA pelJnpuor aq aq] 'Sursrurord peqreeJ e^B.l eqr leql lua'gJnsur sauroJ]no st lrafo-rd rar{unJ,, ,luelueAo;dur tarra'trorr '(r] roJ ergJns q10q pue daql saBuEqJ ;o sapdJ reglra ;r 'luerlc eql Pue peleJduor -BlntuJoJa.r leql rePrsuoJ ro luarlf, -uoJ e leql ro -tuorf,E a^Eq '(

P3 c)

le

n eqs IIIr!\ e dq paraq al'arr .s1eo' s(rossas oql aqr sratJo te IIr^,\ a3pelnou4 uorrernuJoJ InJasn eq cylcads e dars rsrg s..rauortrtre.rd aqr yo salduexa el{t or sr.sJrqlo pue turod srqt alqelrerlB lsaQ aruos sarldur ,"ir*rr ..uorrdaJuor Burprn3,, B.rrp,r"rrrapun tsaq paurldnsrp ur Jo uorleln..,roj eql aurer;a.r lerrrrdua luelaler;o Jo lros eI{I ar..'luelfJ Jo (g) rqt io Jo lcadsord tuerussesse ar1J .(3) saser lnoqe suorldunssB eqt senssr osle sr s(tuel[] aqr '(c) uorrf,e or rgeuaq ssacord eqr pue r.lJreeser ssaue^rlJeJJa troaqr 'asec relnrllred luaurssesse sr.{rrnbur luerussessp ar.lJ eI{] Jo aql dq luerlr eql ue Jeqrre,, dllertrur luarlr '(g) uorrenlls lq pacuangur Apntr repun lJ .(g) e ro uoql sr sI uorllE tSoloualsrda sl slqJ dlruanbar; pue -le^a ueql lPql uorsrf,ap l't{l uollue^Jelul srqJ. 'peruasard ro eq -sE eql ot padold.'e -iua{uer s.Jaurruexe s'raultuexa eql uer8ord trpnlrul r{rlt{^\ rJlerlsaqJro sr

rrdderrpueqBuluruli:lr",o"lllltl#,1#i:;,til:,T*T,':';f,ilj

- 11

Surpunt z errrJ se rrrns suer'o-rd

1"r"pri yo

,r,r*;,;r;;oq^^ 'pateror sr eql JO IoorrJS s(uorleu se ualsrs :rterSalur uE

lJulsrp Joor{JS

uotl3npo4ul

zr I

(13)

'ated t for rped

a t e d u d e s : r a m 1er's

I e m - d t o I a s - e o r fhis rhat that 'r'al- o m - rhat lon- t o r r h a t u l a - r e is lcti-

I

l

ter- cri-

a n cti-

Introduction I r a tioner draws for guidance in dealing with the problem at hand. Polking- horne compares the positivist and pragmatic models of applied psvchol-

ogy with Dreyfus and Dreyfus'sa3 typology of cognitive processes used br-

"novice" and "expert" practitioners, respectively in a variety of profes- sions, Novice practitioners, as in the positivist model, follow the rules

and procedures they were taught in training in a cookbook type of man-

ner. On the other hand, expert practitioners rework these procedures to

meet the unique nature of a particular applied situation. Expert knou'l- edge is produced by interaction between an expert's repertoire of cognr-

tive understanding and environmental cues in the case situation at hand.

Schon describes the intellectual process of the expert practitioner as

" refl ection-in-action " :

'S7hen someone reflects-in-action, . . . he is not dependent on the categones

of established theory and technique, but constructs a new theory of tl-re

unique case. His inquiry is not limited to a deliberation about means u-hich

depends on a priori agreement about ends. He does not keep means and

ends separate, but defines them interactively as he frames a problernatic srt-

uation. . . . Because his experimenting is a kind of action, implementation

is built into his inquiry.aa

In contemporary American psychology, psychological practitiorlers

are beleaguered, caught between two unattractive alternatives. If thev ar-

tempt to follow the applied science model and base their actions on rh.'

scientific literature, they do not receive relevant and effective subst:rntr\ c

guidance for dealing with the context-specific complexities of the indr-

vidual case. On the other hand, if practitioners follow the disciplined in-

quiry, reflection-in-action model, thel' x1s accused of not being "scien.e-

based" by politically and academically dominant, positivist researchers.

While there are some published proponents of the disciplined ir-rquirr model-such as Peterson, Schon, and Polkinghorne-systematic der-e1- opment of this approach is still in a preliminary stage and very feu' if .rnr empirical studies have been completed employing the model. This book

will build upon the conceptual work already completed to bolster the :rr-

gument for an alternative epistemological foundation-praematism- upon which to legitimate the actual work of highly functioning applied

and professional psychologists. Moreover, once this foundation is estirb-

lished and fully articulated, the disciplined inquiry work of applied psr'-

chologists can become much more systematic arrd effective. For there r',,i11

then be positive sanctions and incentives for the establishment of a for-

(14)

8t'eloq'/v\

e se dlalros eql

roJ sJJodud snopuauarl seq

suoorsselr PUB slooqrs

a^rlJet;O ateerJ ot sde.^A

Surpug os PuB 'ssed uerPIIL{r IIe

fsotule qllq^\

q8norqr uorlntrtsur letuetuuJalo8 pue

dtruntutuoJ auo egl eJE

slooqf,s

'uorreurrurrf,srp pue aql

eJrpnlard dnor8ralul pue 1(rueu8ard

a8euaal

a18urs 's8nrp 'acualorrr

"llllt gol ul sll]gaP ',(relelrlll

se qrns 'sn an8eld

teql sruelqord IEIfos eqt

Jo .(ueru Surssa.lppe stue-r8o-rd

uotluana;d -ro;

atrs luellerxa ue slool{rs

puy sfsrSoloqcdsd leuolssaJo;d 'uotltpPe

uI .o'so g 6 r

-p1ru pue.,(1rra er{l uI

suollezlueS;o leuollelnPe leuolleu 'a15ord-q8t.l

dq

penssr st.rodar aulu Jo

selres e dq parq8tp8t.{

ere^\ sualqo.rd esarll af,uIS

.{lryrqrsr.L lerrtrlod pu€

ureruof, f,Ilqnd Suo.rts pa;apua8ua

aleq rualsfs

Iooqls Ieuollpu rno uI

seltlnJgtlp 'srea.,(

ueafJg lsed aqf ra'ro

'osly 'uoll

-ef,npa Jo uollnlo^e pue

.{.rotsrq eqr qll/!\ Pelull .,(1aso1r

ueeq a.'leq slsr8

-oloqrdsd sread parpunq euo

tsed eql ra^o snqr

PuE ,o'l.3o1oqr,'(sd leuorl

-ernpo sen-963r uI Peqsllqelse

TIuIIJ s(rerull/N raurq8rl-d3o1oqr,,tsd

parldde tsJg eqf 'dllecr.lotslH

'suoseer Jo dlat.ren e

ro! ParB sII{l ol

u^\eJP

are stsr3o1oqr,,(s4 'turoJer leuolternPa

Jo sa8ualleqr eql Surssarppe

ro1

ursrteuSerd;o lerlualod aql atertsnlll

IIII!\ 6 .rardeg) 'u.uolag

uotW)nPI

lurod uI ssseJ olI\J

.E JE J

rllleeq pa8eueru;o qrmo.r8 aql

.{q paletrdrrard .,(deraqloqcdsd;o orrlrerd

,{8o1oqr,{sd lecruryc aqr Jo

{rrlrqern aqt ol-lst,rtltsod

Pue rluouoJe qloq

-slearr1t:d8o1oqr.,(sd leuorssa;ord ur areld

8ur>1ef

^\ou sISITJ e ro!

pe-ro1d

-xe aq IIrl!\ Burualrp slqr Sutrrlosar

ro; ,{pn1s eseJ JlleulSe.rd

aqr;o astuo-rd

eql pue rauollltf,Brd lerrSoloqrdsd

el{r Jo PrutuellP etl}

'8 roldel{l uI

,r'aurldrcsrp uJapoutsod e otut

lastr ruroJsuerl o1 dSoloqrdsd

roJ allleuralle luelleJxe uE

se uees ag uef,

arrlrerd lerrSoloqrdsd Surdlrapun dSolouralstda

rtteru8erd aqr'ssearr

-ur dSoloqrdsd rtuapeJe tslurepou;o

sanbrtu) urePoulsod se teql

san8

-re eurorl8ur41o4 ,rre; u1

.arrlre.rd lerrSoloqrdsd arl.rapun

seop dllenpe

teqf dSoloruatstda uJepoutsod 'ltleru8e.rd

aqf alouo.rd pue 'aztuSora.r

'a8palnou1le ol eurl aql sI slql'tuauIalolu lsluJaPourlsod Surmor8

aqt

Io txetuot aqr uI

teqt etef,o^Pe 11e aurog8ul{lod

pue 'uoqr5 'uosrala4

'sesEf IBnprAIpuI A\eu JIal{l

Surssa.lppB uI sJeuoIlIlJPJd

JrntnJ Surprn8 uI anlel

lecrlre.rd snoluJoua a^Eq III/!\

I{lIq^\ 'lapour drrnb

-ur paurldrJsrp eqt ulqll.^a

PalJnPuof, (selPnls aseJ

Jo asBq a3pel,/\\ou>l

lelu uon)npo.tiul I Vr

(15)

rned in- i future rrext of ri'ledge, ,gv that r r n e a r - Iogy in- Practice 'm itself : n d t h e l l b e e x - rreats-

; h o l o g y J health

matlsm i s t s a r e : p p l i e d educa- t cholo-

e d u c a - school i ' i b i l i t y

' i s s u e d

: d m i d - ent site ms that

'. single

r n . T h e : h r o u g h :ifective 't\- as a

Introduction I r s There are currently over fourteen thousand school districts' rvith a

rotal of more than eighty thousand schools.an Each school is a case studv

in how to accomplish generally agreed-upon academic, interpersonal, af-

fective, and character goals in the education and socialization of the na-

r i o n ' s n e x t g e n e r a t i o n .

Why not use the resources of psychology to study systematically and

..iocument a sample of these "cases" to see which ones are successful', to

rrv to understand why they are successful in their local contexts, and then

ro see how this knowledge can provide guidelines for other schools to im-

Drove themselves?

The traditional, modernist approach to increasing educational effec-

riveness seeks general "laws" that "explain" educational performance-

"laws" that link better educational performance to one or two single fac-

rors, such as smaller classes, or longer days, or more parental involve-

ment, or more updated curricula, or "progressive" teaching techniques,

or better teacher-administration relations, or one of today's favorites,

"r.ouchers." In search of these laws, groups of schools that are high ver- sus low on each of these variables but otherwise appear similar are com-

pared to see if a systematic connection emerges between the "high-scor-

ing" schools and better educational performance.

By contrast, in the pragmatic approach, systematic case studies are conducted at well-functioning model schools and,, for comparison' at poorly functioning schools. "Model" versus "poor" functioning is er-

plicitly defined in measurable, partly quantifiable, and partly qualitati'n'e

terms, involving, for example, factors like teacher morale, student en- rhusiasm for learning, student initiative in learning, and academic per-

formance. The criteria for such a definition of excellence have to be es-

rablished through political dialogue, policy setting, and decision making.

Defining goals, then, is viewed as a sociopolitical and not a scientific

question. To obtain the broadest understanding of how "model" schools

attain their success, all the variables that seem relevant in that school set-

ting are included in the case study, not just one or two isolated factors.

From this perspective, it seems clear that it is crucial to look at multi-

ple levels and facets of a school in understanding how it works. This might begin with individual student demographics, such as the percent- age who are affluent versus poor, who are minority, and who come from

single-parent families. Then we might look at individual student abilities,

including student learning styles, and student past educational experi-

ence.Next might be a consideration of student subculture wtth regard to

(16)

droaqt le.raua8 E Jo

lsal e ,(11er1uessa

eruef,eq dpnts s(tuepnls aql

'lapour uorssnfsrp e Jaq qllrv\ oqzrrr ,rasrape aql fq8nel f,Ulluatcs IeuoIlIPBJt

JaryV

'a8esn qcns SurseerJur roJ

pue suopuof, Bursn Jo

ef,upuodur aql rnoqe

a8palnoul ,s.ra8euael Burloruo.rd

roy uer8ord leuortefnpe ue

dolarr

-eP ol Peluem eqs

'suaat u?trrreruv uEJr{V dq

dllenadsa pue 'sla8euaal

dq suopuof,

esn-uou luet?eg to

lnoge uJef,uoJ daap rar.l

Jo srs'q crdot e uE roJ dSoloqcdsd alenpe.r8rapun srsaqt srouoq eqt uo

esorlr

.{rrs.re,rrun an8eal dl1 snor8rlsard

e lE luepnls uef,rJer.uv

uEJr{V uV

zs'eJeq pasodo.rd

Iapotu f,rteru Ieuonrperl aqr Iapou rgnuarrs teqt pue dq parnpo-rd -8erd aql

dq pele.ra

-ue8 qr;eeser Jo pur{

aql ur saf,uereJJrp

lerueuepunJ aqt lq8rlq8rg raqr.rn;

11rrr aldupxa leuorlernpa ogrcads

eroru taqrouy .satpng oma

Jo apl V

'sseuelrtf,eJJe Ipuortezrue8to pue

aJuer.uro;rad leuorl

-Bf,nPe Jo sle^el ;eq8lq

urBile ureql dlaq or

slooqrs eloqlv\

qlrm Sur>1.rom

roJ saurlaprn8 qrrn sra4eudrrlod

pue sreuortrtJe.rd epr,rord ot

pau8rs

-ep are slooqts Suruortcury

dlrood pue laporu erll

Jo st.roder .,(pnr esEJ

'rusruraporu Jo {ro^\eruB{

f,rtsruerlJer.u,alqerrea-a18urs telnralour aqr

uer{t reqter qreo;dde suets.(s

,cr}sr1oq e stdope dprtr asef,

eql ,runs u1

rs 'f nlS Se JJ nS

a9 or sI IoorlJS e;t f;essarau

.(lernlosqe sr sraqruetu {llunruuoJ

pue ,stue

--red 'uotlerlslultuPe 'Al1nte1'sruapnrs urqtr./\4.

pue Suoure uotxo.toqoilo)

leqt eAaIIeQ os';eruo3 seuef

rolef,npa-tsutprqldsd aqr a>1r1

,auros ,toe;

uI

'eJueJgruSrs ro[eur Jo osle

aJe r.ueql Suorue sarJuepuadapralur

pue ,sdrqs

-uolleler 'suotlf,e;elul aqt 'ylaslr

Jo pue ur luelrodurl sl staJBJ

pue sle^al

eseqr Jo qree elI{^A 'd11eurg iloor.lrs

ar{t ot elqelre^e ere

teql ,s.ralndruol

pue uorsr^elel leuortf,nJlsur se

qrns ,sar8opuq)aj Butuwal pue

rslottalpxu

tunln)uiltt 'ttorldns pnuau!

,sa4tyca/ pttsKqd aqt ere

teq^A ,os1y .s,la

-poal lualuuhnoS pua 'otpatu'{,puntutuo)

xuonala,t nqrc Jo pue ,e1e.roru

pue 'drualaduor 'srrqde.rSourep u.&\o

rrar{t e^pq oq,u ,sraqrueru

pffioq

loo(.ps Jo elor aqr la8-roJ t.uop

,osrnor JO istuered pue ,s.raqreal

,ua.rp

-llql ol alElar ol

satltcedBo rlJtlt erp req/N iarnrlnJqns pue

'eleJoul 'sJrf,

-ualaduror 'srtqde-rSouap Jraql ere

rBr{/N :quoJ os pue

'sauelelf,es ,s1ed

-rcur;d arrzr 'lednur-rd 'luapualur.radns

ar|t'uo4ausrutwpp lo,quaj eqt Jo

sf,IlsualJeJPqJ aJP luel"rodul sV

ieleJotu pue 'surerSord,^aeu ot ssauuado

'srrqde.rSouap 'Surure.rt ,sarlrlrqe rroqt

aJE tEq,^A-shq)aaj Jre eraql

asrnoJ Jo uaql 'sue.r8o"rd Ioor.{JS ur uortednrlred

pue ,looqJs aql prl?.A

o1

sapntrDe'srrqde.rSouep ruawd eJe tuelJodur

osly ((.looJun,, se pa.&\ern

a;e daql rer{teqa ro

'panlel ere prer{ Burdpnrs

pue Burureel Jer{lar{^\

uoxpnpo4ul

gt I

(17)

are -ides u r s e :rics, stics inci-

ten- : h i l - l : o o l

a n d , - )

a ' , l u -

lum a n d h e s e

l o n -

r h a t p a r - o b e : h a n r s m .

d e - for

_ l c a -

u'ill aen- rag-

sity

the

by de- dg.

1 g e . tific :ory

Introduction I rz ttf behavior-specificallS the "Theory of Planned Behavior," or "TPB"

.rs it is called.r, The student learned to state the theory in abstract, "sci- entific" terms:

[TPB] theory postulates that an individual's intention to perform or not

perform a volitional behavior, combined with subjective norms, attitudes,

and perceived behavior control, determine whether or not a person will at-

tempt to perform a particular behavior. The TPB further asserts that in-

tentions are a product of an individual's personal nature and social influ-

ences. . . . An individual's evaluation of a particular behavior as positive or

negarive constitutes his attitude toward the behavior. The social influences,

or subjective norms, are defined as the person's perceptions of social pres-

sure to perform the particular behavior.

This formal, "technical" vocabulary seems to many lay people to

make the direct and obvious into the obscure and inaccessible. It is not

surprising that it can turn off activists, not to mention policymakers.

Translated into ordinary discourse, the theory simply says that a person's particular behavior in a particular situation-such as condom use before sex, or completing income tax forms on time, or violently counterat- tacking another person in self-defense-is determined by a variety of fac- tors, including the person's own attitudes toward the behavior, his view of attitudes toward the behavior by people important in his life, his per- ceived ability to be in control of the behavior, and the strength of his in- tention to perform the behavior.

In carrying out her research, the student's emphasis, as dictated by the standard scientific approach in which she was being taught was on de- veloping measures of attitudes that flowed from the theory and would

rest it. For example, she created a questionnaire that asked her research

subjects to indicate how much they believed statements such as, "If con- doms are used, sex doesn't seem natural" (own attitude), "Saying we have to use a condom would make my sexual partner think I am having sex with other people" (others' attitudes), "Condoms cost too much"

(perceived ability to control the behavior), and "I plan to use condoms if

I have sex in the next six weeks" (intention).

In her studS the student recruited ninety-eight college sophomores.

She administered her questionnaire before and after the research subjects experienced a five-hour, small-group educational experience of games,

exercises, and films. There were three different groups. One focused on

promoting knowledge about AIDS and condom use by employing Afro- centrically oriented materials, one promoted such knowledge without the

, :i.

,+t

& t

(18)

t:iJ SuIoB saf,Jnos

:r or

L er

LS 'S 9o 't

IEruroJ Jo ssEq

:.lr ,,'O{Npds4.. ..ioloqrdsd reAo

-'!uo) pue 'satpnts

)!:J fIIUEPEJE PUP

' SUsl Jequnu sltll

ri-r Srgl {ru8e6

': LUOpUOJ PUe Xas

lr luaIJSJns rueas

'i-)Sr 3UQ 'dn-.r^o1

r tuel.rodrut uV

rn

a rs

ql;

tr o

ed ru r

:sn I'uoPuol Jlaql

j: ar{l s3 ,,(eA\ eluEs

.\ tf

ra fe J o q^

sll ,

al :,or31o.rluoJ .(uoll

: lP eleJ SSEq Jer\(r

rn .,

uJ AJ elU

no t d

:F

r IIe sntrot o1

PePir

:ir.ro aql ut sdno-r;

Jnor8 uollef,nPa

. rrqr penS.re slued

':afJnOSeJ POIITUII

-:

u 1o

8t

P a sa

ql

:'.11 lsuIESe paSpni

j ol JaPJO UI-eAIl

uerSord ;r

aqt ;c'

rlfllS aSEJ laPou t-

s.. E euloJeq Plnor

ll]nsar J3r{ tI Pur

SCIV .ro; uerSo:d

':arradxa IEuoIlEf,Il

;.it SuruBIsaP uI

. ;d agr 8urdo1a,,raP

:JJU.AAO,, JO ASUaS E

r: \rp ur d11ry eroul

: r? qJns 'qfr€asal

aqr rnoqSnorql ,,(la,,rrreroqplloJ {ro./!\

plno.&\ rer{rreeser aqt luor{1v\

qrl1!\

'slenprrrrpul alll Jo aonlruuror d.rosr^pe ue

to uorlearJ eql se^r

lxeN

rs'eJntlnJqns pue spaau rrer.ll

ol

petlns tseq se^\ lpql

ef,uar;adxa IeuorleJnpa ue rolret

ot uorteru.ro;ur 8ur

-8.raua eql Sursn 'sdno.r8

snf,oJ pue 'an3o1erp 's.u.arlJetur

ur aldoad 8uno,{

asaql a8e8ua ot sp1!\

paau aql isJor^eqeq rreqt

ot peteleJ s^\erl rrar.ll

are

1\,\oq pue 'ql.ro; os

pus '{rllerro*

'a.rnssa.rd -raad '.&rlenxes ,esn uopuoJ

'SCIV.^AarA aldoed Sunod eseql

op .^AoH :s1\\olloJ se era./\\

pasrer suortsanb

Sursserd er{I 'lrleruerp se,lA

uo turod leqr uro{

r.{f,Jeeser pasodord aqr

ur erueraJJlp eqI iror^eqeq

esn-uopuor rra{1t rarle d1a4rl

lsoru slenpr^

-lpq plnoulr unlnrrrrnr

leuorlef,npe req.^a rltlA

:auo leur8rro rer{ ot

relr

-ruls uoltsanb e qlr.Lr

u8rsep r.{rreesa-r rlleru8e"rd aqr

ueSaq tuepnrs eql

dn-.,rnoy1o;

Suro8uo ur eJuerredxa leuort

-eJnpa er{l rarys esn

tuopuoJ lenlf,€

,strafgns raq ssesse ot

sde.u, ul pllnq

luapnls eql reqt lErtuassa

se^\ tr {p.tr .raq Suru8rsepar ur 'a-ro;a.reql

.Jor

-^eqaq otur salelsuerl rr;r

dluo elqprrsap sr 'srsaql

alenpe.rS.repun aql ur

pazrseqdua 'sapnlrlle osn-ruopuoo-ord ur

aseertur 1a11e.red V 'eurl

relo

esn uopuoJ ur eseeJf,ur

uE sB.&\

u8rsap rlf,Jeasal rrleu8erd s.luepnls

eql

ur leo8 ateturlln aqt

(3ur1u1{}

Jo dBm ua,trrp-uelqord aql

qtr^\ aurl uI

'lralord srseq]

..uanup-,{.ro

-e91,, s(tuepnls 3r.ll o1

pasoddo se r{JJeasal 6.ue^rJp-uelqoJd"

{q tueetu

sr ler{^\

sl slql 'urayqo.rd atrl-lear

E a^los ol lsorueroJ

pue rstg qsr.nr e ,(q

parrdsur a9 ot rrl{

pe.^aolle sltlJ 'u8rpered lrleu8e;d

aqt urqlr.^

lraford

"raq u8rsaper ol dlrunl.roddo

ue peq tuepnts srqt

'looqrs elenperS uI

'r{f,reaser Jrseq ur s8urpug ,(q ,{lateurlln

uodn pattedur eq IIrl\\

sans

-sI aJll-leer leql satunssE

lBrlt lePotu e .{q

paurerlsuor puE pallado.rd sum,

rlf,reeser eql 'af,uar.radxo

leuorle)npe rnorl-a^U eqt reqe

pue eroJeQ tq8r.l

ssrleuuollsanb SuualsrurluPe sP.^A

Jor^erlag 10 .,lroaq1 peuueld

Jr{t Surlsel

yo asodrnd rgrluans req

ro' PePaeu se./lr teql

IIV 'aruat.radxa leuollef,npa

er{l raryE pa8ueqr esn

uopuof, lentJe raqleq.^A pauJeal

rJlau Jer{f,reesrJ

aqr tpnfs Jeq to

ued parrnba.r e se

pezruSof,er tou se,^A

eurof,tno IErorAEq

-eq JJUrS tJor^er{eq ur

sa8ueqJ lentf,e ot ateleJ

srr{t plno./!\

ntoq'a.neuuorl

-sanb eqt uo sJarleq pup sepntrpe

asn-uopuoJ-ord parers rr*{t pasearf,ur

dno.r8 rrrlueror;V aql ur

sluapnrs eqt'prp daqr peapur

," 'JI puy lSursrrd

-rns eq srql plno/N 'sdno.r8 o.^At

raqto eql or pa.reduror se ue.r8o.rd

rrr]

-uef,orJv pau8rsap dllergnads eqr

o1 d18uo-rts lsoru puodsar

plnom slraI

-qns ruePnls ueJrreuv uBf,r{v

rer{ lEr{l sPlv\ srsaqtoddq

s(luepnls aql

qrleaq ye.raua8 Jo uorl

-ouro.rd eql uo pesnJoJ dno.r8 (.loJluoJ,,

e pue 'uorleluerJo rrJluaJo{V

uoxpnpo,tlul I gr

(19)

n o -

ub-

: e n -

; u r - rup r e s -

b e - the the : o f rres

rch : is-

lntroductiort I r q

research. Such a committee was intended to engage the young pet'ple

more fully in developing and participating in the project by engenderinq

a sense o{ ..

ownership" in the research and to provide ctucial input al'out developing the program from their own point of view as participants.

In designing the program, the goal was to put together as rich an ed-

ucational experience as feasible so as to maximize impact. If the student's

program for AIDS education could be shown to have a major impact, and if her results were sufficiently replicated, then this level of impact could become a "standard." In other words, this program could become a model case study. Later attempts to isolate the "effective ingredients"

of the program and to eliminate other components that were not effec- tive-in order to make the program more cost-effective-could then be judged against the programs's original standard of effectiveness'

The design of the study began with two considerations. The study had

limited resources, and prior knowledge of the subculture of the partici-

pants argued that there was a high probability that the Afrocentric AIDS education group would be more effective than either of the control groups in the original study. On the basis of these factors, the student de-

cided to focus all the available resources on (a) enriching the Afrocentric

group intervention, So aS to increase condom use aS much as possible

over base rate at the beginning of the study, (b) creating a "no interven-

tion" control group, that is, a group of demographically comparable sub-

jects who received no intervention, but who would be monitored in the

same way as the intervention group to assess whether the latter increased

their condom use relative to the control group, and (c) following up the impact of the study over an extended period of time'

An important aspect of the program's impact certainly has to be fol- low-up. One isolated, five-hour educational experience surely doesn't seem sufficient if we are trying to change teenagers' practices regarding sex and condom use.

Magnify this one undergraduate thesis thousands of times, and add to

this number tens of thousands of masters' theses, doctoral dissertations,

and academic research projects conducted in psychology each year. The

studies, and commentaries on them, have accumulated in huge numbers over psychology,s last one hundred years. (As of June, 1998, ,,psycINFO," the American Psychological Association's electronic data- base of formal publications in disciplinary psychology, was listing

r , o 6 5 , 5 7 7 r e c o r d s o f p u b l i s h e d m a t e r i a l s i n c e r 8 8 7 ! ) T h e s e a r e t h e r e -

sources going primarily into standard, scientific, theory-driven research.

her r e d t i s he- l i n u s e zed av- ent c a -

I l l ) ,

rhe

l m -

r d i - r i n

l n g )S,' o w e s e

, r g -

ted

(20)

eJa/v\,l.re pue'satpnls IEIJ9S'af,uatf,S'gleu

SE qJnS'slralqns loot{ls IEuoIl

-lp€{

.uorleN lprnllnlrlFl

orv e/N I E

(efuauadx[ ueflroluv puB

]glled

/uEJIJaLuV-upISV arll gaf,uauodxg JIuEdsIH

eI{I (efuauadxg ueJIJaIuV

-uBlrrJV eI{I 'oruauadxg uerIreIUV

a^IleN aL{I (drlunuuoJ

Pue looqls

aql uI slooU JnO

:ree.,t Iooqls lsrg el{f

PalnlllsuoJ I'{JItl.lA 's>laarvr xts

Surtsel qf,ee (sarueql xls

Jo salres e Pedola^eP loot{rs aqr

'Pooqroql{8leu

slr ]o dlrsra.a,rp er{t

uo Surrrre.rq 'leporu Sutsrurord

lsoru e PaleeJJ seLI

teqt Ioot{JS dreluouale IEnSuIIIq

dB.u.-olg'lernllnrtllntu

? :aa{ne^\IIIAJ

ur JooIllS Leuletg aqf

'qsrJBuE ul 'lo daulerg elanlsg e-I

aqr lnoqe ureal

pue aseqe|eP eql sseJPPe

PFo) lrI[JUo) crJsrngurl pue

'lercet'cruqfa ur sr

irq,looqJs dlrr e re^o Burlel led'ur.rd

looq)s d.reluauale

^\ou e'snq1

'suollenlrs Jsst

Io spur>l f,urf,eds ur

sl€o8 Jo sadfl uleuaf,

L{sIIdIuoJf,e 01 Irol!\ suollue^

-relur leq^A lnoqe suorlpzrleroua8

PesnloJ l.llerrreulSerd plard o1

seser Jo

sad,{r f,urJeds ssorJe ses.,(leue

a^Ileredluof, lJnPuol PInoA\ slslJoeg}

pue

srer{freasau .as€r la8rel eql SurssarPPE

roJ seulleprn8 pue suollsaSSns

roJ

Sa IP nlS as oq ld old ua Pu eu oI lE nlI S}

e8 Je }a q}

Pa qJ le l'u }s aq re qr as Bq el€

P

*{F ur.

serpnls espt osoqt ssJffg

uaql Plnof uoll€nlls aS€f,

J€lnJIU€d 9 Jo

stxaluor pue sleo8 Pu€

sulolqold aql r{lI1Y\ 8ur>porvr

sJeuollllferd 'seIJoB

-otef snorrE^

fq aseqerep pazlr€lndluof, e

olul PezIuESro aq uaqr

Plnol

Serpnts esef, asaql 'SaIPnfs

sSeJ ellsual{OJduror 'ctletuals'ts qll'&\

Pallg

sleurnoI e^eq plno^\ plou

aql ,sarpnls dno-13 ((ue^IrP-l.roeq],,

qll^\ PelH

sl?urnoI s.fppo]

Jo PPetsuI 'tlf,ruosar

IEJISoloqr,{sd Jo lueluor Pue

snroJ

eql uo lrtdur

\Ef,llf,EId f,IlEtueIP e^€g Plno^\

ur8rpered flleruSerd 'peseq

-as€f, e 'o uoll€lueuraldtul

(Snf,o] I{lJea-o1-u.^A.oP S}I t{}11}\

}uelslsuo-)

uorsr^

^\al{

v :sleurnof s,d3o1oql'(s4

'tnoqE seJ€J lsolu trIlqnd

aqr

legl sru€r8ord lerros f,grf,ads

ur slPo8 lellos relnfluPd

eql 8uI^eII{fe uo

rar.{lgr lnq s^\EI lesra^I;n

Surnt.rap uo }ou st 'uaql 'snro;

rleql 'sualqord

esaql sruarredxe oq^\ slenpr^rPur

eql t{]I^\

.,{la^IrEroqellof, Pue dlrra.ltp

{ro^/\ dr.ll .se^lastueqt luasard

sualqord lecrSoloqrdsd Surssard r{f,Ir{'/t\

uI

ser'Id asoql ur inq

suroorss€' a3allor pue selrol,roq'I

uI lou lrolv\ dtgl

...Ieella8,, slsrSoloqrdsd (uaql

"tSOloqrdSd rrtBruSBJd

(POluaAuIaJ e uI

'drrlear depdrana Jo Plro^L

er{l uI eJuaret

-JIp e Surleur ;o

63urn3re urB

6af,u3r{l JalBeJS I

qfnu e qll.^a s]f,eford ua^

-rrp-uelqord ,lrleurSe.rd olur

PauSISePar eq Plnor selPnls asaql

Jo requnu

leriuersqns B (rlf,reaser

luapnls e^rl€rlsnlll rno to

lcalord eqr 'III PUV

uorpnPollul

07 I

(21)

rantial m-dri-

; a dif-

real. "

places work these rather

s that

Introduction I zt

.rrerwoven into each theme. Moreover, within each of them, teachers :aught one entire segment almost entirely in Spanish. An example was

"lnsect Life on the River," which was that portion of the fourth-grade ,cience curriculum that was linked to the first theme on the local com- runity.'s

Adopting the pragmatic perspective means' then, that psychology's inowledge base would in some ways look like that of court law. The

:asic knowledge unit in court law is the completed individual case. These

-ases are then used to develop guidelines and precedents for new cases.

in addition, legal scholars and researchers analyze the collection of cases

:o derive general judicial guidelines for practical policymaking.

Two Faces of Psychology: "I'Jatttre" uersus "Cultttre"

-\ theme that organizes this book is differentiation between the natural

,ciences and the humanities, that is, between the sources of modernisr

.rnd postmodernist psychology, respectively. To understand this concept.

rt is useful to employ Baumeister's-t5 division of reality into two broad cat-

:gories, corresponding roughly to nature and culture. The natural sci-

ences primarily study the former, and the humanities the latter. The first

.ategory involves physical things, such as trees' rocks, tables, water, \\'in-

dows, dogs, and electricity. Modern science tells us that these objects are

made up of atoms and molecules and follow certain natural laws'

The second category is meaning and intention'

Meaning is real [because] people act on the basis of meanings, and thesr'

actions produce physical consequences. Buildings, for example, do not

come into being by the mere confluence of natural forces. Buildings erist

as meanings (such as ideas in the architect's mind) before they erist as

physical things. Blueprints, contracts, zoning restrictions, building codes.

and other meanings play a vital role in the creation of a building. . . '

[\7hile] meaning is real, . . . [it] is not the same thing as phvsical rerrlirr.

. . . Language is not made up of atoms and molecules. It is possible to de-

scribe a book in terms of its physical properties, such as the chemtcal com-

position of the paper and the number of small ink squiggles on the p'rges'

but such a description would completely miss the point of rn'hat a book is.'-

The study of white mice running through laboratorv mazes, of human

beings as "information-processing systems," or of personality as a collec-

tion of behavioral traits exemplifies a psychology based in nature, a disci- case-

rn the rrnals r r n a l s

udies cate- rtexts n the u d i e s chers t\-pes

nter- d s o f I t h a t : and

ol in rhat rf its sting r the

c a n - Lcan/

:adi-

r\'€fe

(22)

_ u n r u r e tr *u r o 3 u r ur B e r a q'

;r';T ;J 13 ; j:;

ffi ;:r3,;:

j r;L::j;

suorrJ' UaAo

",rr*oJ;;il; e{rJ

e^lo^ur ]pql ,,,rusrJorAprro9,,

pu" ,lqanoqr

sesnJoJ rrrrql\

'1sb"1'o1

sruarua^o.' alf,snu Burtrrpard uo posoddo se)

Ieurue lerrdll -xe Sururear

-slleluaur,, or 8ur11o'tuof, pu'

yo d-roaqr .uorlue pe^Jo,rur .,{Boloqr aqt uI dpnls eqr .soS6r luea(u srqt Burureel leturup;o aqt teqr aqr urqtr^{ qJreeseJ ;ofeu JectSoJoqc,{sd -fsd ur JoJ lw aqr .,paseq uaqlt .so96r yo drolsrq ruo,J suorleu'ldxe orpr aqr se-/!\ ,{3010qrisd ((pas'g_eJnllnf,,, .u-rapourlsod qt*rir,rru per'ur.'op rq ue'aq stderuoc lrrun drnluar aladuor or '{pea aqr -arnJeu" 'urapou

elePlPuer erll pre.'v\ol sapntltte

a^ltrsod sasearc", ,Or*]l

Trt.1;

U; Jo af,ueJJnJf,o ruaurrse^"' ,r"r"*-1r, A\eu ur 'ssauln;a.r'J (sJo{Jo,^a pue ,ruaurdrnba sa^rlueJur xel Iecrrrlod orrrleSau -sruo^p' satuedruoJ JoJ eql arns uJ slre.rr sruJal e aro} upunq Burlro_r8 ror^eqeq ^\or{ or strert lrlleuos Jo stua8 eg or sertrlua sB pup slaueld qtoq ,srualsls eqr eJnper llparip rrs lJorlp pooJ ,rusrue8ro u^{o rreqt seJroJ pue {usruJepou ,lse-rluol a^rrrsod'sluacselopp saqsnd slrerrp VNA pue Bur.,rrl or lall'red op teqt pue ,r,rr1oin aprn8 ,pr"^rt llruanbar; srql ,e.suortJe e^eq lou uo sa^llueJur roC .Burzrrluou Jo drr.rerndod acuapuadapur s(lenpl^lpul Jo suolleueldxa aJ*u alrr{^\ letr8olorsdqd aql IIr^ eert sue{unq sn.\erl dlquasse ue se ,alduexa .:or,reqeg suorteueldxe s^{olle erE puE rol^eqaq aql luaudolarap 's8ue8 aSeuaat esEaJJuI eutl -ted'sazeul q8norql -serd ;aad -le f,rttet8 oqr Jo -uou Jo ueunq to -araql lou Jllslueqtetu ur

pue ,saldnor .xeldUOr ot ruroy Or znoy eqr oseerf,ur asBaJJUr 'xas a;es or noog Bn.rp;o ftuangJa r,rltuoJ eJnpal 'sruerSo-rd uortetrlrqeqar peIJJeU ur 8ur r.{f,ns e BurdJddy se sarpnts z11or{ rileur8 etd, dolaaap ol or arrrrradsrad a-rnrrnr aqr luatua8eueu a^rtJaJta e rc! -snoq otlqnd splar"t a'rtroads'ad

-tuouegd asoqr Jo af,uesse

eqr sesol dlge,tar.rrarrr suorlJ,

rno *";t;:i ,sue1d ,suorlualu, pue ,s1eo8 Surzrouag .sasod;nd -uPetu asaql

,r3*.r"r*

Jo qr^{

e uI paqseruua ,{lqedeosaul

ejll uetunq -sl

,azrrlladsrad

srql uoJC Sursnro; dt[euorluelur aldoed uo sluoSe se rrer{' Jo 'suorrf,p u'4Ao

pue a,trrradsrad e qrn5 uet.,ng sluasa.rd ur Jor^er{eq JO SruJer sseusnorJsuoJ

ts"'sJU38e to lJnPuoJ leuolleJ

eI{I,, sasseduorua oJnrlnf, aIFIA\

,..srJaI se stdar puBlstepun ,s;arJaq d8ologcirO'y .srural ,rr,{I .Jor^eqaq ur pepuno.r8 ,suor]ualu, ,rrp,,lrlle se^Io^ur ornteu s8ur-rq arntlnf, 'ssacord leDos JPsneJ eqt,, t{Jns ur [PJnllnJ pue suollJerolur -go Jo o1 saloJ -uoJ lBualetuuou lectsdqd 'a1qe,r-rasqo ur rorler1aq

uerunq 11e ureldxa ot

sldua11e reqr aurld

uotpnPoqul

zz I

Referencer

RELATEREDE DOKUMENTER