Y l .
Introductlon
A Better Way to Help by Re inu enting P sy ch olo gy
Turning Mainstream Psychology -tJpside Down
The human troubles of our times demand the attention of
psychology. Xfe seem caught in a web of social crises, powerless to gen-
erate effective solutions. Drugs and violence seem to pervade small
towns'' suburbs, and cities alike; homelessness abounds; the middle-class
lives with job insecurity and worry that their health insurance will be dis-
continued; the public school system seems to be in a state of disarray and
ineffectiveness; alienated white males join paramilitary militias devoted
ro racism, anti-Semitism, and violent resistance to government authority;
and "culture wars" proliferate over issues like abortion, prayer in
schools, school choice, gay rights, and welfare dependence. Overseas,
two disturbing, antidemocratic trends appear to dominate more and more each day: tribalism, with different ethnic, racial, and religious groups murderously pitted against one another; and globalism, with the homogenrzation of cultures and economies across countries created by international corporations, undermining distinctive ethnic traditions and identities.r.2
How can psychology help? For the last one hundred rwenty years, since Wilhelm'W'undt's establishment of the first scientific psychological labo- ratory, mainstream psychology has primarily offered one answer, building upon two positivist assumptions from such natural sciences as physics, chemistry, and biology. These state (a) that the search for general theory
precedes application, and (b) that general theory proceeds analytically by
breaking complex processes into small parts and individual variables; de-
veloping broad, abstract laws to correlate these variables; and then ex- perimentally testing these laws in controlled, laboratory settings.
This book argues a radical proposal: to improve psychology's capac-
:qf,rBeseJ usrloqoJlB Jo elard
rElnJrupd E Jo rusrtrrtrJf, Jer.{ ul
alelnf,rue
pue frtBtuerp dlrelnfrtred ueeq
ser{ r{sF{rw ereqrpg e^rtetuaserdau
(('sJoop uado q8norqt dezrr.rraql
Surddoqc,, .(q snor^qo aqr
Joqpleq ol uo8.re[ Bursn
pue .,'znou>1 dpea-r
-le o^\
lEr{AA SUrU;guoc;o de,rvr alrsuadxa
dJeA.
e,, sB ,.,'3urf,aag uap103,,
e
crlqnd agr 8ur,rr8 se
o,..sp1eg f,UrtuJrJs Jaqlo uanr8
suorterrdo;dde r.lJreas
-er eql;o Surrrrasapun alSSopuooq
lenlfellarur uE,, ur Bur8e8ua sE ,,,.eJue1
-rJequr srq srapuenbs etueilolrp
eqr a>lrl lauou
xet esn oq.&\ sraqf,reaseJ
;o f11oy a8ulr; qsrlooJ
eql,, sE stsrtuarJs lerlos
Burqrnsep ,qr.reesar oruerf,s
Ierros ;o Surpun; aql
uo {f,ene IBtuorJ e
pa8ervr a^pr{_f,rlerf,oueq pue
uecrlgndag qrog-ssa.r8uo3 Jo sreqrueur
eruos leql Bursrrd.rns lou
sr tJ
'luelaleJJr Jo .snorlqo ,lualsrsuofur
Jeqlra eq
or dllecrdr(]
uaas .,{pnls JsglJnJ;o dqr"rorvt,,
puB .,anrtsa83ns,, se peqrJJs
-ap elrq^\
',{rl.{^ sSurpuy lerrrrdua Jo
plro/!\ B pue fsrrlsrtels pue sraq
-runu xalduor Jo plro^\
e luortce upunq Bur.,(pnrs
roJ suorlrpuoJ .,{tort
-oqPI alelnurs ot slorluoc
lerrSolopoqreu qtr^\
uorledncroe.rd;o p1.ro.vr
e'.ay1depdra,,ra Jo drrxalduor dnr;8-dnru aqt
ruort paqlerep .sruJal f,rlsru
-eqJeu 'asn.rtsge ur palrsod
serroer{t leror^eqeq 1e-raua8
Jo plro.^a
((rgrlue uarlp dlarald eqr ol to selqnorl 'seturr rno s.readde rBq/N e st -Irs,, 'eullstrd
-ruoJ sr leql tuleeJ e surees
dlruanba.r; eJuerf,s lerJos f,ruepBJE
Jo uretuop luaruurelo8;o suorllrq uorlepunoJ pue te1 'srEIIop aql roJ aqt 'uos.raddel
Jo sparpunq Jo luerulselur
eqr ro1 sanrlod saprn8
dllenuue r.{rreaser
Ietr .rofeu roJ af,rnose.r puv Bur,(pnrs lenos Sursserppe -Soloqrdsd 'sualqo-rd
e se '1e-raue8
ul eluerf,s ler)os rueeJtsurgru
rltr,,l{ Buole t8oloqrr(sd aas
sre
-peel tuaruurelo8 pue rrlqnd
er{t Jo tuau8as lerluelsqns
e ler{l enrt sr
tJ
{lezrrte;n8g pue dllerarry qtog-seser
o} u./!\op Burua8
/q PItg aqt Surtuelular
uaql pue
"{8o1oqr,{sd Surlrn.rlsuorap ,(11ecrper
.ro;
suosear lerrSoloruatsrda pue IelrlJerd
Burlladuor ere orer{l tEqr
^^.oqs IIr^^ Surlnqrrtuor aqt ot Jo uortnlos 'srualqo.rd ayrl-1eer 'troqs uI slql uI I Toog
ur e^rlf,eJJe eq ol
sl.rod.rnd reqt r{rJeasa.r lerr8oloqrdsd
;o slurod Burpua
pue Surlrels stll eq
Plnoqs-sseupeppequa Ientxetuor pue lrlxalduor
rtrualsdstllntu rlaql IIe ul-seseJ
lpnlJe reqr san8re ,{qa.raqr
u8rpe-red
rrleu8e.rd aql 'suortenlrs
Ienlre ur sallasrueqt luesard
,(11erlrsr1oq daqr
se stuelgoJd qrrrvr Ieep
tsntu qJreeser pue droaql
,la.toelow .puEr{
]E rual
-qo;d aql dq peltarrp uerlt ere
r{rreaser pue droaqt reqr
pue ,ts-rg seruo)
-uollEnlls leJol B uI ruelqord rulnrrl rcd
e e^los ot poeu
eqt-uorterrldde
reqr Puetuol IIL A J
'rusrleruSe;d pue usrurepoutsod;o seare
eql ur stueur
-dolanap lecrqdosollgd ruacar uodn
peseg "u,/!\op aprsdn lepour
rueorts
-ulelu aql urnl lsnru
elt 'sJSt-tJ pue saItlnJUJIp
ueunq sserppe dlaq or
drr uott)nPo.ttul
7 |
Introduction | 1
1 - t - I T
Not one rummy has been taken off of Baltimore streets by this research.
Not one drunken husband has been dissuaded from beating his wife or one
drunken mother from beating her child. These research projects are like ex-
otic, expensively mounted butterfly collections, hidden away in vaults and
only exhumed from time to time to display to other collectors of the rare
and unusual in mutual reaffirmation of their elite status.u
It is tempting to join these politicians and see a conspiracy among so_
cial scientists to defraud the public of billions of dollarc in th. pursuit of
intellectual games for "mutual reaffirmation of their elite status.,, How- ever' this book contends that the positivist, natural science scientific model predominates today, not as a result of corrupt or fraudulent indi-
vidual professionals,, but rather as a result of academic psychology,s con-
tinuing, misplaced faith in the philosophy of mod.rri.-. This "philoso-
phy has gained tremendous intellectual and political favor ou., ,h. pu*
one hundred years because of its intimate association with movemenrs, such as the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution, that underlie contemporary civilized life in developed societies.
Modernism-the natural-science-centered worldview deriving from
the Enlightenment-is a seductively aftractive belief system in its promise of clear, absolute, "objective,, answers in a complex, ambigu_
ous' troubled world. However, modern psychology's d.liu.ry on its promise to date has been scant at besr, especially in light of the major
resources devoted to it, such as the federal government's annual invest-
ment of at least $r.8 billion for psychological and related social science research.t
Of course, the lack of dramatic results to date and the divergence of psychological conce ptualizations of human behavior from l"y .Jr..p,,r- alizations are not per se damning of the field. The response of main_
stream psychology to its meager results is to urge patience. The field re_
minds us rhar it is holding a philosophical promissory note with the American public. Based on the discipline's underlying, modernistic phi-
losophy of science and knowledge, psychology has promised that invest_
ment in the laboratory-based, theory-testing research model of posi_
tivism will eventually pay off with the discovery of general laws that can then be deductively applied to solve specific social problems.s Some be_
lieve it is still possible that the special language and perspective of psy_
chology will one day spawn a "psychological Newton,, or a ,,psycholog_
ical Einstein" who will develop laws that gain broad consensus in the dis-
cipline concerning their distinct and superior capacity to predict and
t -
S
c c I
-l T S
-slp e se dSoloqrdsd
;o rrnleu rqr Jo
8ur>lurqrar lPluauePunJ e roJ
aSets
eql slas leqt ,brs.la^IP
Pue a8ueqr uJePoulsod;o
luetuuoJl^ue slql SI 1I
'uo)uawv )aquaps
leu.rnoI snorSrlsard aqr Jo
rotlpa roluas e ,(q
x'atuans Jo prE aqlPaPn
Iooq
€ ur pauorlsanb Suraq
sl aJII urepou Jo
srsBq aql ue^O Puv
'tusllernl
-lnf,rllnu pue dlrs.ra,rrp Surzrseqdua JIPsotu
*lao9 P€les', e
Jo euo olul
pafiueqr seq dlarcos uEJIJeLuy
;o fdaruoJ ,,lod 8utl1atu,,
sr'leruJoJ elf
qrr-r-dSolouqJat e uI uolleruJoJul Jo uoISIAo.rd
aqf pue '>1-rolt'Iueel 'uotl
-ezlleJluetep sazlseqdua feql aJnflnf
((UEuIs,, 'd.re.rodtuetuoJ e ol
eJnl
-1nl ,,r(.rol)e1,'lertqr.re.rarq 'd.rntueJ-rllueolaulu e
tuoJJ alotu ol Palue1
-ural Suraq aJe uorlef,npe
pue Sseulsnfl ir'.{lIruEJ .,1€rulou,,
E Jo trIJqnJ
ulqll^\ rqt
(Ie;n1eu PuE PeldoPe) uarPllql
rlaql pue saldnor uElqsel
pue ,le7 Surpnlcur dq
pafue.r.ura.r Suraq st ,,.,{1tureJ,, er{I rr'SJead
arrg-.{txrs
lsed aqf ra^o pedola^aP
e^eq leql suprSo-rd lueruurelo8
;o eJnlJnrls
puB ernleu JrsEq eqr
8ur{ro^\er pue Sur4urr{]ar dq perua^ulsr
Suraq
sI luatuuJe^oo (('palue^uleJ,, uat{l
PuE (.pelf,nJlsuotraP,, Sutaq aJe
suoll
-ntrlsul :rle aqt uI
SI a8ueql IeJIPe.r 'd.rlunor
slql ur depol
'suolllpuof,
Ietol uo Sulpuadap uoIlPIreA IEaJB
qlla 'paleutruopa;d
a.'req dtrs'rantp
pue e8ueqr 'srea.,( df-roy
lsed aqf JaAo elEJ
Sutsea.rcul ue le 'lalaltol-1 ., 's dn o.
r8
Jruqta
leuolteu pue
Suoue sef,ueJeJJIP IelISoloaPI
roleru
pua ol
ue pu€
plroi\\ rrlt punore serf,errouep
Ieraqrl snoeueSouoq ol Pesl
IIII!\
ssaro.rd slqf tegf patulelf,o-rd
aneq slslurapory 'qJreeser ef,ueIJS
lelf,os
q8no.rqf .(paJeAofSIP,, aJe leql
eJnteu uetunq lnoqe
S.41\EI IESJaAIUn Jo
uortprrldde leuorler er{t uo
pespq ssarSo.rd Ielf,os tSolouqral
PelEIrossB
pue eJuarJS JO qrzvror8
eqt qrrl\
ssa.rSo.rd lplf,os Sutsearcul PasIuIoJd
seq
us lu Ja po ru 'lu at uu af q8 rlu
ar E
ll eJ uI S'L la tc
Pa os
zll elJ ls np ut 'u .r als a/
6.
ur suortntllsul d.re.loduraluof, aql
sellrePun lel{l {qdosopqd
JI}sIura
-poru aqt Jo anbltuf Peorq s(ulsluraPourlsod
Jo a^IlJelJar ere Sur4urqf
rrtsluJaporu s.dSoloqcdsd tu€eJlsuleru Jo
senbltuf, S(tusluJePoulsod
.sualqo.rd lerf,os Surssa.rppe dlarrrtcaJJa erolu
JoJ n(tuslteu8e.rd
Lrrepoutsod ut pePPoqua dllerrqdosolrqd'laporu
paseq-asef, (ellleurel
-lE uE Sursodo.rd roJ
uollePunoJ P se uaql asn Pue
sonblluf, esaql a;oldxa
rlr.^A {oog srql
dSoloqrdsd luPeJlsuIeIU Jo sanblllrJ
0r((uJePoulsod" ruoJJ
Surrrr-rap suoseeJ 'etou d.rossttuo;d
aqf Pulqeq ,{qdosolrqd aqf
Jo ((lIParJ
rue qlleJ IInJ,, eql
uoltsenb ol suosee;
Surmor8 eJe arel{l tala,u,o11
6'slePou,(roreueldxo Jeqlo JeAo re./!\od
rrsearrul dllerrleuerp
I{1I.{\ Sutuotlrunt IEIf,os Pue
IBnPI^lPul lorluof, uon)npotlul 1 n
e a s e d r and 'ir.ing i will r n a l - rdern r i s t i c m o d - r s i n
n i s m : a n d .rtion o u g h
] C C S S
r d a n r h n i c : a n d I o c a l
;ntu- r n t i s
a n d p a s t ' a n d r the r e i n -
c u l - I i z a - - r i c h n g e d
icul- r o o k r r n a l s the
d i s -
Introdwction | 5
cipline. And it is from this environment that a new, case-based, pragmatic
psychology springs. To provide an initial understanding of postmod- ernism and pragmatic psychology's place in it, a whirlwind tour of post- modernism is in order.
The Emergence of the Pragmatic Paradigm f'rom Postmodernism
\7hat's \7hat in Postmodernism
A core idea in postmodernism is that we are always interpreting our
erperienced reality through a paLr of conceptual glasses-glasses based
on such factors as our present personal goals in this particular situation,
our past experiences, our values and attitudes, our body of knowledge,
rhe nature of language, present trends in contemporary culture, and so
forth" It is never possible to take the glasses off altogether and view the
ivorld as it "really is," with pure objectivity. All we can do is change
qlasses and realize that different pairs provide different pictures and per-
spectives of the world. Vhich glasses we "should" use in an individual
situation depends not on which pair purports to correspond best to the
"real" external world, but rather on a variety of other criteria, which are
an ongoing subject of discussion and dialogue. Because postmodernism
posits that there are no clearly superior, that is, "privileged" criteria, it is
not surprising that there several variants of postmodernism that differ ac-
cording to which criteria should pr:edominate. All these variants,, how-
ever, can be understood in terms of six major themes emphasized by post-
modern epistemology.,t
The first of these themes is "foundationlessnessr" the notion that there
rs no objectively knowable external reality that forms a foundation to knowledge, but rather that all knowledge is partial and limited to one of
rnany possible perspectives', consisting of constructions based on human
organizing capacities. A second theme is "fragmentariness," the idea that
the real is not a single, integrated system, but rather a collection of dis-
r-rnited,, fragmented, disparate elements and events. Another theme is
"constructivism," the notion that human knowledge is not a mirrored re-
flection of reality, but rather a constructed interpretation of the undiffer-
e n t i a t e d " f l u x " o f e r p e r i e n c e .
sz'rusrlpru8e.rdoau slq8rlg8rq usruJapourtsod_.(
f, rteur
-8etd,,3ur11er dldurrs rue J
tpr1.4n Jo-(6f,rleu8e-rdoau,, ,.,eArlplu
rUJv,, pue
,.!slrlnaueruJel{ 1err3o1o1uo sazrseqdue rusruJapoulfsod
.,1"rr3o1otuo,, ,.lErrJuJ,, ..![usrarllnlls sazrsegdure rusruJeporulsod r.!,,(roaql IBJTITJJ -uoJ Pue'ssautreluaurSer;'ssausseluorlppunoJ-satuegl errrlrntlsuof,
-eP eJou 'eeJr{l fsJg
eqf sazrseqdure usruJepoutsod ..1eortda>1s,,
:azrseqd
-ua daql setueqt aqt
to rlrlq^A Jo sturet
ul pereltuararrrp eq upr
r.usrura urqtrA {ro^\eureq eqt eseqt Jo ,saruaqt xrs saddr ;no; -Pourtsod ;o
rz'stlnsar pepuetur rrar{l parnpord
e^eq leql sarrlce;d
eqf alngulslP pue 'azrue8to
,lra11or ot saAJaS eJuerf,s
,es;onrun er{l
Jo eJue .pasr^ar sr to pEelsuJ e Suraq roJ r{f,rpas s,4\el Surllrapun sglnrl pup
-rJs Jo asod-rnd aqr
q8noq\e'uoila Jgrruarfs rot
s./!\olle ursrJeru8e;doa5l
0z'suortJrpa.rd lecrla.roeqt
ueqt JaqleJ seluarradxa snor,ta.rd
dq paur.ro;
-ur uauo tsour aJe
tlnsal peJrsap E tnoqe
Furrq ot repJo ul
ons.rnd ot suorl
-f3 r{Jrr{.Aa Jo ssrroql
,{ep,{.ra,ra rlar{r 'plro1!\
eql ur sasodrnd qsrlduorce
pue pue crlsrsdrlos .Jr]srlrlBle.r saop] . . .tusrteru8e;doa111 tdactu [rou s8uraq uerunH e reqr JIe{u op aurldnsrp urapoulsod ser.{ slraford ataldruor'salroqr eq ot :spro.^a s,auroqSul{lod
pleuoc u1 'sasodrnd pue
s1eo3 esoql
eAarqre dleq or .,{trredec str Jo
srural ur a8pe1,ta,our
to lpoq e }o
,,qtnr1,', ryroads legl sdno-r8 ueunq uI op 'aaeq lJeJ lI pue eql selenlB^a
sasod ,txaluoc sesnJoJ rusrter.use;doau eql uo sleo8 Ienlxetuot -'rnd pue
ler pef,uerradxa .rno sr .&r1eal petf,nrtsuor dllenos lerntlnJ ur -rrolsrq pue
;o lsE-J oqt sr to Jrueqt SurrdaJJV ,,.rusrteu8eJdoeu,, A\erA eqr qJntu lBtll
aqr ern* s uor rn q' I
s a'r u eru"
u'"i ji 1'i;1,::'ffi
ilHlf.,,.., :i,1in
sessef,ord reqt SurpuetsJepun Jo uotlelardralul pue lou aJeuortru8ora.r
8,, sl sJrtneueruraq lerrSololuo
,sp.ro,lrr s(sses uJ .oJueuadxa
uetunr{ Jo
sluenlrlsuoJ Jrseg aql Otur
rueqr stuJotsuett pue sJrlnaueruJerl
Jo spoqtatu so rorleqaq lerrSoloruo '$at saler sJltnauatu.raq rrllleue aqr
ueunq ol uo pesnroJ 'stxal Ielllqlq relel Pue se^\ lI ol PaPualxa 'slxal IIP ueql puB
tr
'i11errru1 'uotlelardtalul
Jo ttv Jo af,uarJs eql sr
.(srrlneuaurrJlj,, .Jeuepeo
pue ;a38apleH Jo ((srrtneueurar{
1err8o1oluo,, or{l sr aueql qfJg V
,,'altlsnI pue i.{rrnba trru8rp
IPIf,os PJe.4Aol Sutat-rls Jlaql
ur Jaltpl aqt 8ur-ra,trodrua
;o 'pasrqcueryuesrp
pue paSelue^pesrp aql lsure8e
dlltoqrne ur asoql Surnrd
rerltre ,sar-ro;
ieJnllnl Pue '1ert1r1od 'Jlulouof,a
uanrJp sr lq
uorleJeua8-a8pa1,4Aou{
Jle lEql '/v\aIA lslxJew-oau
aql ,.troaqr leJrrrJl,, sr
etuerlr r{ilno;
y
uo tp np or ru
I I
g
. h a t a l l . ultural
ed and J social :er and
nitially nd then rnalytic :ltuents : s i s " a l r e n o t
ute the r much histori- r d p u r - rres the rchieve
:o be
) t e c t s :'r ac- :t ln-
' of sci-
1 truths ute the
s t m o d - r e v e m -
ore de- d con- reoryl23 :uticsl2a
" p r a g -
Introduction I z
The Pragmatic Paradigm as a Response to Psychology's
" C u l t u r e . W a r s "
\Tithin psychology,, it is mainly the skeptical and critical visions of
postmodernism that have gained prominence. These visions are in many
.-lramaric ways an explicit rebellion against the hegemony of modernist,
positivist psychology. The dialectical debate between positivist psychol-
ogy and these versions of postmodernism-psychology's version of the
"culture 1y21s"-[as been strongly polarizing the field and splitting it
rpart.26 Now psychologists frequently battle against one another rather
rhan against human distress and social conflict. For example,, critical
postmoderns are viewed by positivists as blatantly antiscientific in their
ideological politicalization of all psychological issues; while positivists
are viewed by critical postmoderns as strongly and naively aligned with
perpetuating the political status quo of contemporary oppressive, corpo-
rate capitalism.
Positivists are angered by skeptical postmoderns. Emphasizing the limi-
rations of knowledge, skeptical postmoderns put their energies into the
provocative deconstruction of accepted realities,, ideas, and institutions.
\X/hile this can have a salutary effect upon unfreezing ossified and destruc-
tive belief systems, and while this process sometimes results in a playful, ca-
cophonous, flamboyant celebration of the diversity of human images and
ideas, ultimately the skeptical postmodern does not explicitly propose more
useful belief systems.2T In short, the purpose of the skeptical postmodern is
deconstructive, not constructive. While skeptical postmodernism's dra-
matic, confrontive qualities have helped it to achieve notice in its clash with
positivist psychology, these qualities have exacerbated polarrzation within the field. The choice presented by positivism versus skeptical postmod-
ernism Seems to many a choice between a "formal,," "technical," "objec-
tive," "rigorousr" arld ultimately "socially irrelevant" psychology' on the
one hand, anda "subjectiver" "personalr" "deconstructiver" "criticalr" and
ultimately "nihilistic" psychology, on the other.28
Not surprisingly, a related dialectic occurs between skeptical and crit-
ical postmoderns. The skeptic condemns the critical theorist for propos-
ing foundational, "essentialist," "totalizing" political values, not ac- knowledging the contextually limited, constructivist nature of them;
while the critical theorist castigates the skeptic for radical relativism and
associated political nihilism.2e
.ilii
ir{:{:e
:.1.-,ir
iii ,
il
eBrBIue ol sr looq srql Jo
asod-rnd luelrodur uS rr'lel
aqr uo usrurapou
-tsod Ipf,rlrrf, pue lerrldals
'1e.raqr1 dyletrper pue 'tg8rr aqt
uo rusr,rrtrsod
elrtelJasuoc'leuortrp€Jl fllerrlsru-repotu uealuaq uorlrsod
tsrrtuar,e1p
-PItu e lno 8ur>lels se PO^aeIA
Jg ueJ rusrteru8e;d 'sturat
leorrrlod uI 'eJnl
-eu ueurnr1 Jo s^\el
1e-raua8 patrod.rnd relolun
ot tou ,sdno.r8
Ierf,os patsn
-trs .{11e.rnrlnr pue f11err.ro1srq
'telnrrr;ed;o s1eo8 ue.r8o-rd pr^rrap
d11err
-l€JJoruap eql aAerr{JE ol pesn
a,re daql :asod.rnd lsr,rrtrsoduou
e qtrl\
rnq
'pa.(oldtua ere rusrnrlrsod Jo
slde)uoJ pug sarSolopoqreu ofuerJs
leJnleu
eql snql 'w8rponj
qtrtt4tsoQ er{r Jo stuetuelarr{tre lentderuor pue
Ipr
-rSoyopoqlau aql qlm-w8tpawd
)nnauaLunq eql se dno;8 ul ol
parraJ
-er reryEarer{-rusruraporutsod lerrSolotuo pue
'lerrtr,rr 'lerrldeIs Jo sseu
-eJp^\e anle^
pue srq8rsur lerrSoloutalsrda eqt
saurquoJ r1Jeordde srql
'e^IlPuralle a,trle;8etul ue Surdolalap
/q sre^\
erntlnt leJrrlelerp s,d8o
-loqrdsd puarsuerl ol sleas
dSologrdsd ur w7tpanj
tlaruSotQ aq7 'uorlJE PUE Jor^erl
-eq ueunq uodn uo{el
eq uef,tpr{t se^rtradsrad alqrssod
1o Leue tse^ eql
;o dlar.re.t e a-roldxa
tpqr seepl pue serroer{l
1err8o1oqr.{sd;o dlddns qrr.r
e padola,r.ep a^Er{ slsrartrsod
'uortrppe uI 'Eueuouaqd
lerrSoloqrdsd 8ur
-Jnseeru Jo sartrxaldruor eqt
tnoqe Surlurql snorua8ur pue
'lerrtuf ,snoJo
-3u.ro; sprepuels q8rq ras
teql sarSolopoqlaru elrlualur pue
pete)rtsrqdos
.,(llecr.rreruoqrdsd rno pelels e^Er.{ slsr,trtrsod
aqt la8eaur .,(lSurluroddesrp
a.re dSoloqrdsd tsrnrtrsod ;o
s.read eseql IIe Jo enle^ Ierrpe.rd
aqr q8noqr
ua^E dSoloqrdsd pazrueS.ro ;o
pleg eqt Surleunuop ,,{lyerruouof,e
pue
dllerrrrlod lyrts 'puno.r8 -rraql
pleq a^eq stsrnrtrsod rqr
re1 'slraford r{rrees
-a.r lerrSoyoqrdsd lnoq8norqt Suruun;
sepua8e Jrruouof,e pue lecrrrlod
eql ot sn pezrtrsues eAEq surepoutsod
lerrluJ aql pue 'd8o1oqr,{sd
lsrlrl
-rsod ,(q pareraua8 a8pal^\oul
eqt uo suouetrurrl lelueuepunJ
are arer{l
leqt turod Jrar{t apptu
e^eq srllda>1s
'surnlar Surgsrulurlp aql
;o lurod
B par{)eer seq s.read
,{rroJ rsed aqr ra,ro
,{Soloqrdsd ur ursruroporursod
Ief,rtrJl pue 'rusruJepotutsod lerrrdals
'tusr.l,rlrsod Suoue aleqap aql
'sura)uoJ lerJos Surssa;d s,depol ;o;8urrr1os
ualqo.rd lerrlrerd uo
srseqduaJp € ur sllnsar qtnrl ,,lerrqdosollqd,,
(crtaqtsa '1err-rrdua-Ertxe
uo snJot s(rusruJaporulsod lecrSololuo'tarraznog
Or'sJoqlne uJepou
-lsod lerrtrrf, pue lerrrda>1s.(ueu
Suoue arue.{oqupg leJrroler.lr pue
uorl
-ero,to.rd lerrSolorualsrda pre./!\ot fruapual
aqt r{tr1\\
slsertuof, teql dtrlrru
-nq lerrSolouralsrda ue Surzrseqdua
'a8pay.tnoul;o .{rrn8lqrue pue frrxald
-Luof, leorqdosolrgd aqr sessaJts
rusrurepoulsod yecrSololuo'rusra.rlrsod
qlr.^^ rrlrelprp eqt ur
dn lq8ner ssel uaeq
seq snqr pue 'rusrurapoutsod
lerr
-trrJ pue lerrlde4s ueql
elrteqruof, ssel sr rusruJapourtsod lerrSolorug
uotpnpo4ul I g
. n t - ,'ith )m- h u -
r C a -
) st- on r s i s c a l i a 1 a t r s i - : h e r e -
llv
e n t r e
l l v
; o . _ ' D
rr- a o f e -
Introduction I g rhe number of psychologists who are attracted to join this centrist posi-
tion, and to encourage the establishment of disciplinary structures-iour-
nals, funding for research projects, and training programs-to help insti- tutionalize pragmatism within organized psychology. 12
The call for a pragmatic centrist position between the dialectical po- larities of "leftist" skeptical and critical postmodernism versus "rightist"
positivism resonates with the academic "culture wars" on college cam-
puses and on the broader political scene. The intellectual historian Rus-
sell Jacoby and the political scientist Benjamin Barber write about how the culture wars, as reflected in the ideological battles on today's cam- puses' have misled America, diverting public attention from the real problems corroding education and society:
Conservatives, liberals, and radicals argue over which books should be
taught in schools; meanwhile few books are read. . . . Faculty and students
dispute which words violate the rights of which groups; while society turns
increasingly violent. . . . Citizens wrangle over multiculturalism . . . ; mean-
while the irresistible power of advertising and television converrs multicul-
turalism into a monoculture of clothes, music, and cars.33
Conservatives want to teach the canon, critics want to teach multicul-
turalism: \who wants to teach democracy? Private agendas abound: \fho
will teach the public agenda?3a
On a more philosophical level, in the words of the anthropologist Nancy
Scheper-Hughes, it is time to resist the present forces of political polar-
rzation, when "the cultural right is demanding moral and epistemologi- cal certainties and the cultural left is calling for a capitulation to the ul-
timate nihilism of postmodernism. "35
Supporting the Beleaguered Practitioner
The practical value of psychology as a discipline results from the activi- ties of applied and professional psychologist practitioners. Broadly speaking, one can distinguish at least two models of professional prac-
tice, paralleling the epistemologies of positivism and pragmatism.
The Modern, Positivist Model
In the modern, positivist model, practitioners are appliers of "basic"
knowledge. Donald Petersons6 terms this model "professional activity as
l
P LIJrr.{,'!\
UI dlrunrutuoJ eqt 'tcrrlsrp
Iooqf,s Jo IooqJS e
'ssep e 'tuapnls
Ienpr^rpur uB aq UEJ tuerlJ aqt
.ureruop leuorlufnpe aqt
ur ,alduexa rog
,tlatros B uele ro 'dltunruuloJ 'uorleztue1to
'dno-r8 'lenpr,rrpur ue Jq
upf,
luerlr aq1 '(arn8g agl
ur V tueuodruor) a8ueqr
,ro; sleo8 pue sr.uelqo.rd
s(tuarlJ eqt pue ((JuarlJ,, eql qrr./v\
suets Iapou eqr dlyergnads
erory '(
ue 1 r
uo d
-uor) sleo8 a8ueqr s(luarlr
aqt urelle Surdlaq ur
ssauelrrraue sr
Jo uotl 1o tuo,t8 lueuoduror) ,(V stuauoduor) sarrlres stuasa.rd oq^a ,()-g E qtr^{ uaqt r{Jrr{rrn roJ errsep q8no.lqr seo8 salreJer 'a8ueqr -onpna ue -otd e t-uaq) e :slred rofeu aarql
seq Iepou aqr 'u.nnoqs
sy 'z'r arnSg ul
paluas
-a.rd sr tr Jo eurltno uE
pue ,,,,{.rrnbur paurldrlsrp sB
dtr,rrtre yeuorsse;o;d,,
Iapou srqt sller uosraled.r.op
d11en1re sreuortrtre.rd lerr8oloqrfsd
urelr
dueu ter{^ Jo uorldaJuot lerrSolorualsrda
ue seprlo.rd ,1apou rrteru
-8e;d 'uraporulsod aqr dSoloqrdsd
parldde to
^\ar^
rlrteuratle JLII
IsPoW f,rlptu8erd 'u.rapourtsod eqJ
'a8pa1zu,oul yerrSoloqt.{sd to sseupeppeqtua
Ientxrtuor aqt dla,,rrluelsqns a;e ot luelale-r-rr d.role;oqeluou eql to asnEf,eq-plJo,/!\
asrrd
-Jalue JI{l Jo sllnsal arll pue
l,,eJnleu ueunq Jo s.uel
Jrssq,) ((Jalotsrp,,
ol elqlssod tou sI
]I-Pe./L\eg tyet?olorualsrde sr tJp
oJ sr reuorlrtce.rd
ar{t r{Jri{.,rl.
uodn ((af,uerJs .,f,1S89,,
aqt :ploJolu aJE ,Go1oqc,(sd
parldde yo
.ry\el^ lstntttsod aqr qlIA
srualqo-rd aql 'arrrtradsrad uJepoulsod
e ruo-rg 'saJnpaJo td pazr.
-lpuorleredo ,(1q3rq 8ur,{1dde uerrrur{ret
e se pe.^^rr^ sr
tq8r.r eqt uo lsr8o
-loqrdsd parldde aqt pue
'a-rn8g er{t Jo ryel aqt uo reqrreeser rrseg
aql dq
auoP sr
>lro.^ penlp^
pue SurSuslleql tsoru aqt
r{rrqa ur ,1apou rBrurl
B
sl slql 'sluarlr qtr.Lr
flrra;rp 3ur1-ro^\
srauortrtre.rd leuorss{o.rd ,,(q palld
-de ueqr Jre r{Jrr{./nt
'(Surpear Surqceal .ro1 sanbruqral
a8en8uel aloq^A ro
s>lf,enE rtued -ro;,{de.raql Jolleqaq-alrlruSoJ
((pezrlenue{u,, se qrns) sar8
-olour{f,et sate.raua8 urnt ur
r{Jlr{^a ,qr.reasa.r perldde or
speel qllr{^A ,ernl
-eu uetunr{
Jo s^,\el 8urd1-rapun aqt
Sur.ra,rocslp {q surSag r{rreesar rrsEq
'urrtoqs sV 'r'r ern8y ur petuesa-rd
sr lr Jo aurltno srq pue
,,,af,uarJs parldde
:aqsrlqnd aql Jo uorssrurred ,(q palur_rdag
'(166r uosralod uor;)
atuerrs paryddy se ,ftrnr1ty
leuorssaJord .r.r atn&g
uoq)npotlul
or I
Introduction I r r
r g g r ) .
hown, t n n a - r n o l o -
rtacks en ap- this is
; done r-chol-
i o n a l - r view ch the ble to enter-
u s e o f
prag- many model rs pre-
client t pro- '.'alua-
i c o m -
Iient's client rciety.
; i d u a l iich a
(!
6
H
H H H
6 E
EE
d
E
-
-crt)
!
' 6
ta=
L
-I
-t-
c\
i
A) L
!
-
L
-a
E 6
L
--
'- ' -
a
. =)
=
a
L
"i
f-.1
\
oa r r
(g
E
G s
d
=
L
= r =
4 A
-Ilrerd oqr qlrq^{ uodn
serpnrs aspf, pareln.,,nJrp Jo
as'q?rep
l'urerur lrolsrg s(JauorJ ,eu.roq3ur1104 ,uos zrugrrrs pue leuorsseJo.rd leuosrad;o eqr ezrseq_dua qtrq,,\t ,elualradxo Jo aruelrodurr ue sdolaaap -tlrerd oqr -ralad sB r{f,ns srolrrlv\
'lapour rrreruSe.rd eql urqlrlv\
Suluorlru"l
"rq]1X a8ueqr Burrep at{l uoltdafuoJ eqt ur sortsrralJBJeql Jaqto e Jo reuortr]feJd eJe osef, sr uortdetruof, Pa-/\'lollot seq pa-rrnbar dydreqs os lllun tlleuorsef,ro .[arn8y aulrl lPql ur 1 luauodruor] aqr 'ranalroq qtr,/!\ lua1slsrr63ur ue rer{l ro'[arn8g eql -olu{uoJJe Surprn8 eqt ro seruorrno
"qi,r, f rueuodruorl
x1r.,o ;o dpoq ot Bur.rq alqereduror txau aqt .eser aql saruairad"a aqt dllensn seq Jauorrrlf,Brd patelrturssp sr a:uarradxa -tzra-rd parurnurnrlp aql urqtr^\
uer asur qruE reuortrtrerd aqr sppe sarpnts aql or Jo arols aq a8paFvroul JI{s ro
-rtce.rd eqt roJ aruarradxa Burureal e
sl eser r{f,pe ,acrtrerd
,rdorJ],;o,t
oo,.'[)-H] per{rear leur uorrenle^a Irlun anurluoJ alqeldaJJE uP sr etuof,lno
pue ,uorlc'
.uor1 peqsrld s;p;r; ,qr l leuorrrppg reuorrlrrerd eql ro suoJJe rer{unJ pr" ,rfr1, lou eJE uer uorrpnre^. aql reprsuoJ asrurord suo}Ja raql suorsrf,op ea.r8e ,r,rorlrlr"rA pelJnpuor aq aq] 'Sursrurord peqreeJ e^B.l eqr leql lua'gJnsur sauroJ]no st lrafo-rd rar{unJ,, ,luelueAo;dur tarra'trorr '(r] roJ ergJns q10q pue daql saBuEqJ ;o sapdJ reglra ;r 'luerlc eql Pue peleJduor -BlntuJoJa.r leql rePrsuoJ ro luarlf, -uoJ e leql ro -tuorf,E a^Eq '(
P3 c)
le
n eqs IIIr!\ e dq paraq al'arr .s1eo' s(rossas oql aqr sratJo te IIr^,\ a3pelnou4 uorrernuJoJ InJasn eq cylcads e dars rsrg s..rauortrtre.rd aqr yo salduexa el{t or sr.sJrqlo pue turod srqt alqelrerlB lsaQ aruos sarldur ,"ir*rr ..uorrdaJuor Burprn3,, B.rrp,r"rrrapun tsaq paurldnsrp ur Jo uorleln..,roj eql aurer;a.r lerrrrdua luelaler;o Jo lros eI{I ar..'luelfJ Jo (g) rqt io Jo lcadsord tuerussesse ar1J .(3) saser lnoqe suorldunssB eqt senssr osle sr s(tuel[] aqr '(c) uorrf,e or rgeuaq ssacord eqr pue r.lJreeser ssaue^rlJeJJa troaqr 'asec relnrllred luaurssesse sr.{rrnbur luerussessp ar.lJ eI{] Jo aql dq luerlr eql ue Jeqrre,, dllertrur luarlr '(g) uorrenlls lq pacuangur Apntr repun lJ .(g) e ro uoql sr sI uorllE tSoloualsrda sl slqJ dlruanbar; pue -le^a ueql lPql uorsrf,ap l't{l uollue^Jelul srqJ. 'peruasard ro eq -sE eql ot padold.'e -iua{uer s.Jaurruexe s'raultuexa eql uer8ord trpnlrul r{rlt{^\ rJlerlsaqJro sr
rrdderrpueqBuluruli:lr",o"lllltl#,1#i:;,til:,T*T,':';f,ilj
- 11Surpunt z errrJ se rrrns suer'o-rd
1"r"pri yo
,r,r*;,;r;;oq^^ 'pateror sr eql JO IoorrJS s(uorleu se ualsrs :rterSalur uE
lJulsrp Joor{JS
uotl3npo4ul
zr I
'ated t for rped
a t e d u d e s : r a m 1er's
I e m - d t o I a s - e o r fhis rhat that 'r'al- o m - rhat lon- t o r r h a t u l a - r e is lcti-
I
l
ter- cri-
a n cti-
Introduction I r a tioner draws for guidance in dealing with the problem at hand. Polking- horne compares the positivist and pragmatic models of applied psvchol-
ogy with Dreyfus and Dreyfus'sa3 typology of cognitive processes used br-
"novice" and "expert" practitioners, respectively in a variety of profes- sions, Novice practitioners, as in the positivist model, follow the rules
and procedures they were taught in training in a cookbook type of man-
ner. On the other hand, expert practitioners rework these procedures to
meet the unique nature of a particular applied situation. Expert knou'l- edge is produced by interaction between an expert's repertoire of cognr-
tive understanding and environmental cues in the case situation at hand.
Schon describes the intellectual process of the expert practitioner as
" refl ection-in-action " :
'S7hen someone reflects-in-action, . . . he is not dependent on the categones
of established theory and technique, but constructs a new theory of tl-re
unique case. His inquiry is not limited to a deliberation about means u-hich
depends on a priori agreement about ends. He does not keep means and
ends separate, but defines them interactively as he frames a problernatic srt-
uation. . . . Because his experimenting is a kind of action, implementation
is built into his inquiry.aa
In contemporary American psychology, psychological practitiorlers
are beleaguered, caught between two unattractive alternatives. If thev ar-
tempt to follow the applied science model and base their actions on rh.'
scientific literature, they do not receive relevant and effective subst:rntr\ c
guidance for dealing with the context-specific complexities of the indr-
vidual case. On the other hand, if practitioners follow the disciplined in-
quiry, reflection-in-action model, thel' x1s accused of not being "scien.e-
based" by politically and academically dominant, positivist researchers.
While there are some published proponents of the disciplined ir-rquirr model-such as Peterson, Schon, and Polkinghorne-systematic der-e1- opment of this approach is still in a preliminary stage and very feu' if .rnr empirical studies have been completed employing the model. This book
will build upon the conceptual work already completed to bolster the :rr-
gument for an alternative epistemological foundation-praematism- upon which to legitimate the actual work of highly functioning applied
and professional psychologists. Moreover, once this foundation is estirb-
lished and fully articulated, the disciplined inquiry work of applied psr'-
chologists can become much more systematic arrd effective. For there r',,i11
then be positive sanctions and incentives for the establishment of a for-
8t'eloq'/v\
e se dlalros eql
roJ sJJodud snopuauarl seq
suoorsselr PUB slooqrs
a^rlJet;O ateerJ ot sde.^A
Surpug os PuB 'ssed uerPIIL{r IIe
fsotule qllq^\
q8norqr uorlntrtsur letuetuuJalo8 pue
dtruntutuoJ auo egl eJE
slooqf,s
'uorreurrurrf,srp pue aql
eJrpnlard dnor8ralul pue 1(rueu8ard
a8euaal
a18urs 's8nrp 'acualorrr
"llllt gol ul sll]gaP ',(relelrlll
se qrns 'sn an8eld
teql sruelqord IEIfos eqt
Jo .(ueru Surssa.lppe stue-r8o-rd
uotluana;d -ro;
atrs luellerxa ue slool{rs
puy sfsrSoloqcdsd leuolssaJo;d 'uotltpPe
uI .o'so g 6 r
-p1ru pue.,(1rra er{l uI
suollezlueS;o leuollelnPe leuolleu 'a15ord-q8t.l
dq
penssr st.rodar aulu Jo
selres e dq parq8tp8t.{
ere^\ sualqo.rd esarll af,uIS
.{lryrqrsr.L lerrtrlod pu€
ureruof, f,Ilqnd Suo.rts pa;apua8ua
aleq rualsfs
Iooqls Ieuollpu rno uI
seltlnJgtlp 'srea.,(
ueafJg lsed aqf ra'ro
'osly 'uoll
-ef,npa Jo uollnlo^e pue
.{.rotsrq eqr qll/!\ Pelull .,(1aso1r
ueeq a.'leq slsr8
-oloqrdsd sread parpunq euo
tsed eql ra^o snqr
PuE ,o'l.3o1oqr,'(sd leuorl
-ernpo sen-963r uI Peqsllqelse
TIuIIJ s(rerull/N raurq8rl-d3o1oqr,,tsd
parldde tsJg eqf 'dllecr.lotslH
'suoseer Jo dlat.ren e
ro! ParB sII{l ol
u^\eJP
are stsr3o1oqr,,(s4 'turoJer leuolternPa
Jo sa8ualleqr eql Surssarppe
ro1
ursrteuSerd;o lerlualod aql atertsnlll
IIII!\ 6 .rardeg) 'u.uolag
uotW)nPI
lurod uI ssseJ olI\J
.E JE J
rllleeq pa8eueru;o qrmo.r8 aql
.{q paletrdrrard .,(deraqloqcdsd;o orrlrerd
,{8o1oqr,{sd lecruryc aqr Jo
{rrlrqern aqt ol-lst,rtltsod
Pue rluouoJe qloq
-slearr1t:d8o1oqr.,(sd leuorssa;ord ur areld
8ur>1ef
^\ou sISITJ e ro!
pe-ro1d
-xe aq IIrl!\ Burualrp slqr Sutrrlosar
ro; ,{pn1s eseJ JlleulSe.rd
aqr;o astuo-rd
eql pue rauollltf,Brd lerrSoloqrdsd
el{r Jo PrutuellP etl}
'8 roldel{l uI
,r'aurldrcsrp uJapoutsod e otut
lastr ruroJsuerl o1 dSoloqrdsd
roJ allleuralle luelleJxe uE
se uees ag uef,
arrlrerd lerrSoloqrdsd Surdlrapun dSolouralstda
rtteru8erd aqr'ssearr
-ur dSoloqrdsd rtuapeJe tslurepou;o
sanbrtu) urePoulsod se teql
san8
-re eurorl8ur41o4 ,rre; u1
.arrlre.rd lerrSoloqrdsd arl.rapun
seop dllenpe
teqf dSoloruatstda uJepoutsod 'ltleru8e.rd
aqf alouo.rd pue 'aztuSora.r
'a8palnou1le ol eurl aql sI slql'tuauIalolu lsluJaPourlsod Surmor8
aqt
Io txetuot aqr uI
teqt etef,o^Pe 11e aurog8ul{lod
pue 'uoqr5 'uosrala4
'sesEf IBnprAIpuI A\eu JIal{l
Surssa.lppB uI sJeuoIlIlJPJd
JrntnJ Surprn8 uI anlel
lecrlre.rd snoluJoua a^Eq III/!\
I{lIq^\ 'lapour drrnb
-ur paurldrJsrp eqt ulqll.^a
PalJnPuof, (selPnls aseJ
Jo asBq a3pel,/\\ou>l
lelu uon)npo.tiul I Vr
rned in- i future rrext of ri'ledge, ,gv that r r n e a r - Iogy in- Practice 'm itself : n d t h e l l b e e x - rreats-
; h o l o g y J health
matlsm i s t s a r e : p p l i e d educa- t cholo-
e d u c a - school i ' i b i l i t y
' i s s u e d
: d m i d - ent site ms that
'. single
r n . T h e : h r o u g h :ifective 't\- as a
Introduction I r s There are currently over fourteen thousand school districts' rvith a
rotal of more than eighty thousand schools.an Each school is a case studv
in how to accomplish generally agreed-upon academic, interpersonal, af-
fective, and character goals in the education and socialization of the na-
r i o n ' s n e x t g e n e r a t i o n .
Why not use the resources of psychology to study systematically and
..iocument a sample of these "cases" to see which ones are successful', to
rrv to understand why they are successful in their local contexts, and then
ro see how this knowledge can provide guidelines for other schools to im-
Drove themselves?
The traditional, modernist approach to increasing educational effec-
riveness seeks general "laws" that "explain" educational performance-
"laws" that link better educational performance to one or two single fac-
rors, such as smaller classes, or longer days, or more parental involve-
ment, or more updated curricula, or "progressive" teaching techniques,
or better teacher-administration relations, or one of today's favorites,
"r.ouchers." In search of these laws, groups of schools that are high ver- sus low on each of these variables but otherwise appear similar are com-
pared to see if a systematic connection emerges between the "high-scor-
ing" schools and better educational performance.
By contrast, in the pragmatic approach, systematic case studies are conducted at well-functioning model schools and,, for comparison' at poorly functioning schools. "Model" versus "poor" functioning is er-
plicitly defined in measurable, partly quantifiable, and partly qualitati'n'e
terms, involving, for example, factors like teacher morale, student en- rhusiasm for learning, student initiative in learning, and academic per-
formance. The criteria for such a definition of excellence have to be es-
rablished through political dialogue, policy setting, and decision making.
Defining goals, then, is viewed as a sociopolitical and not a scientific
question. To obtain the broadest understanding of how "model" schools
attain their success, all the variables that seem relevant in that school set-
ting are included in the case study, not just one or two isolated factors.
From this perspective, it seems clear that it is crucial to look at multi-
ple levels and facets of a school in understanding how it works. This might begin with individual student demographics, such as the percent- age who are affluent versus poor, who are minority, and who come from
single-parent families. Then we might look at individual student abilities,
including student learning styles, and student past educational experi-
ence.Next might be a consideration of student subculture wtth regard to
droaqt le.raua8 E Jo
lsal e ,(11er1uessa
eruef,eq dpnts s(tuepnls aql
'lapour uorssnfsrp e Jaq qllrv\ oqzrrr ,rasrape aql fq8nel f,Ulluatcs IeuoIlIPBJt
JaryV
'a8esn qcns SurseerJur roJ
pue suopuof, Bursn Jo
ef,upuodur aql rnoqe
a8palnoul ,s.ra8euael Burloruo.rd
roy uer8ord leuortefnpe ue
dolarr
-eP ol Peluem eqs
'suaat u?trrreruv uEJr{V dq
dllenadsa pue 'sla8euaal
dq suopuof,
esn-uou luet?eg to
lnoge uJef,uoJ daap rar.l
Jo srs'q crdot e uE roJ dSoloqcdsd alenpe.r8rapun srsaqt srouoq eqt uo
esorlr
.{rrs.re,rrun an8eal dl1 snor8rlsard
e lE luepnls uef,rJer.uv
uEJr{V uV
zs'eJeq pasodo.rd
Iapotu f,rteru Ieuonrperl aqr Iapou rgnuarrs teqt pue dq parnpo-rd -8erd aql
dq pele.ra
-ue8 qr;eeser Jo pur{
aql ur saf,uereJJrp
lerueuepunJ aqt lq8rlq8rg raqr.rn;
11rrr aldupxa leuorlernpa ogrcads
eroru taqrouy .satpng oma
Jo apl V
'sseuelrtf,eJJe Ipuortezrue8to pue
aJuer.uro;rad leuorl
-Bf,nPe Jo sle^el ;eq8lq
urBile ureql dlaq or
slooqrs eloqlv\
qlrm Sur>1.rom
roJ saurlaprn8 qrrn sra4eudrrlod
pue sreuortrtJe.rd epr,rord ot
pau8rs
-ep are slooqts Suruortcury
dlrood pue laporu erll
Jo st.roder .,(pnr esEJ
'rusruraporu Jo {ro^\eruB{
f,rtsruerlJer.u,alqerrea-a18urs telnralour aqr
uer{t reqter qreo;dde suets.(s
,cr}sr1oq e stdope dprtr asef,
eql ,runs u1
rs 'f nlS Se JJ nS
a9 or sI IoorlJS e;t f;essarau
.(lernlosqe sr sraqruetu {llunruuoJ
pue ,stue
--red 'uotlerlslultuPe 'Al1nte1'sruapnrs urqtr./\4.
pue Suoure uotxo.toqoilo)
leqt eAaIIeQ os';eruo3 seuef
rolef,npa-tsutprqldsd aqr a>1r1
,auros ,toe;
uI
'eJueJgruSrs ro[eur Jo osle
aJe r.ueql Suorue sarJuepuadapralur
pue ,sdrqs
-uolleler 'suotlf,e;elul aqt 'ylaslr
Jo pue ur luelrodurl sl staJBJ
pue sle^al
eseqr Jo qree elI{^A 'd11eurg iloor.lrs
ar{t ot elqelre^e ere
teql ,s.ralndruol
pue uorsr^elel leuortf,nJlsur se
qrns ,sar8opuq)aj Butuwal pue
rslottalpxu
tunln)uiltt 'ttorldns pnuau!
,sa4tyca/ pttsKqd aqt ere
teq^A ,os1y .s,la
-poal lualuuhnoS pua 'otpatu'{,puntutuo)
xuonala,t nqrc Jo pue ,e1e.roru
pue 'drualaduor 'srrqde.rSourep u.&\o
rrar{t e^pq oq,u ,sraqrueru
pffioq
loo(.ps Jo elor aqr la8-roJ t.uop
,osrnor JO istuered pue ,s.raqreal
,ua.rp
-llql ol alElar ol
satltcedBo rlJtlt erp req/N iarnrlnJqns pue
'eleJoul 'sJrf,
-ualaduror 'srtqde-rSouap Jraql ere
rBr{/N :quoJ os pue
'sauelelf,es ,s1ed
-rcur;d arrzr 'lednur-rd 'luapualur.radns
ar|t'uo4ausrutwpp lo,quaj eqt Jo
sf,IlsualJeJPqJ aJP luel"rodul sV
ieleJotu pue 'surerSord,^aeu ot ssauuado
'srrqde.rSouap 'Surure.rt ,sarlrlrqe rroqt
aJE tEq,^A-shq)aaj Jre eraql
asrnoJ Jo uaql 'sue.r8o"rd Ioor.{JS ur uortednrlred
pue ,looqJs aql prl?.A
o1
sapntrDe'srrqde.rSouep ruawd eJe tuelJodur
osly ((.looJun,, se pa.&\ern
a;e daql rer{teqa ro
'panlel ere prer{ Burdpnrs
pue Burureel Jer{lar{^\
uoxpnpo4ul
gt I
are -ides u r s e :rics, stics inci-
ten- : h i l - l : o o l
a n d , - )
a ' , l u -
lum a n d h e s e
l o n -
r h a t p a r - o b e : h a n r s m .
d e - for
_ l c a -
u'ill aen- rag-
sity
the
by de- dg.
1 g e . tific :ory
Introduction I rz ttf behavior-specificallS the "Theory of Planned Behavior," or "TPB"
.rs it is called.r, The student learned to state the theory in abstract, "sci- entific" terms:
[TPB] theory postulates that an individual's intention to perform or not
perform a volitional behavior, combined with subjective norms, attitudes,
and perceived behavior control, determine whether or not a person will at-
tempt to perform a particular behavior. The TPB further asserts that in-
tentions are a product of an individual's personal nature and social influ-
ences. . . . An individual's evaluation of a particular behavior as positive or
negarive constitutes his attitude toward the behavior. The social influences,
or subjective norms, are defined as the person's perceptions of social pres-
sure to perform the particular behavior.
This formal, "technical" vocabulary seems to many lay people to
make the direct and obvious into the obscure and inaccessible. It is not
surprising that it can turn off activists, not to mention policymakers.
Translated into ordinary discourse, the theory simply says that a person's particular behavior in a particular situation-such as condom use before sex, or completing income tax forms on time, or violently counterat- tacking another person in self-defense-is determined by a variety of fac- tors, including the person's own attitudes toward the behavior, his view of attitudes toward the behavior by people important in his life, his per- ceived ability to be in control of the behavior, and the strength of his in- tention to perform the behavior.
In carrying out her research, the student's emphasis, as dictated by the standard scientific approach in which she was being taught was on de- veloping measures of attitudes that flowed from the theory and would
rest it. For example, she created a questionnaire that asked her research
subjects to indicate how much they believed statements such as, "If con- doms are used, sex doesn't seem natural" (own attitude), "Saying we have to use a condom would make my sexual partner think I am having sex with other people" (others' attitudes), "Condoms cost too much"
(perceived ability to control the behavior), and "I plan to use condoms if
I have sex in the next six weeks" (intention).
In her studS the student recruited ninety-eight college sophomores.
She administered her questionnaire before and after the research subjects experienced a five-hour, small-group educational experience of games,
exercises, and films. There were three different groups. One focused on
promoting knowledge about AIDS and condom use by employing Afro- centrically oriented materials, one promoted such knowledge without the
, :i.
,+t
& t
t:iJ SuIoB saf,Jnos
:r or
L er
LS 'S 9o 't
IEruroJ Jo ssEq
:.lr ,,'O{Npds4.. ..ioloqrdsd reAo
-'!uo) pue 'satpnts
)!:J fIIUEPEJE PUP
' SUsl Jequnu sltll
ri-r Srgl {ru8e6
': LUOpUOJ PUe Xas
lr luaIJSJns rueas
'i-)Sr 3UQ 'dn-.r^o1
r tuel.rodrut uV
rn
a rs
ql;
tr o
ed ru r
:sn I'uoPuol Jlaql
j: ar{l s3 ,,(eA\ eluEs
.\ tf
ra fe J o q^
sll ,
al :,or31o.rluoJ .(uoll
: lP eleJ SSEq Jer\(r
rn .,
uJ AJ elU
no t d
:F
r IIe sntrot o1
PePir
:ir.ro aql ut sdno-r;
Jnor8 uollef,nPa
. rrqr penS.re slued
':afJnOSeJ POIITUII
-:
u 1o
8t
P a sa
ql
:'.11 lsuIESe paSpni
j ol JaPJO UI-eAIl
uerSord ;r
aqt ;c'
rlfllS aSEJ laPou t-
s.. E euloJeq Plnor
ll]nsar J3r{ tI Pur
SCIV .ro; uerSo:d
':arradxa IEuoIlEf,Il
;.it SuruBIsaP uI
. ;d agr 8urdo1a,,raP
:JJU.AAO,, JO ASUaS E
r: \rp ur d11ry eroul
: r? qJns 'qfr€asal
aqr rnoqSnorql ,,(la,,rrreroqplloJ {ro./!\
plno.&\ rer{rreeser aqt luor{1v\
qrl1!\
'slenprrrrpul alll Jo aonlruuror d.rosr^pe ue
to uorlearJ eql se^r
lxeN
rs'eJntlnJqns pue spaau rrer.ll
ol
petlns tseq se^\ lpql
ef,uar;adxa IeuorleJnpa ue rolret
ot uorteru.ro;ur 8ur
-8.raua eql Sursn 'sdno.r8
snf,oJ pue 'an3o1erp 's.u.arlJetur
ur aldoad 8uno,{
asaql a8e8ua ot sp1!\
paau aql isJor^eqeq rreqt
ot peteleJ s^\erl rrar.ll
are
1\,\oq pue 'ql.ro; os
pus '{rllerro*
'a.rnssa.rd -raad '.&rlenxes ,esn uopuoJ
'SCIV.^AarA aldoed Sunod eseql
op .^AoH :s1\\olloJ se era./\\
pasrer suortsanb
Sursserd er{I 'lrleruerp se,lA
uo turod leqr uro{
r.{f,Jeeser pasodord aqr
ur erueraJJlp eqI iror^eqeq
esn-uopuor rra{1t rarle d1a4rl
lsoru slenpr^
-lpq plnoulr unlnrrrrnr
leuorlef,npe req.^a rltlA
:auo leur8rro rer{ ot
relr
-ruls uoltsanb e qlr.Lr
u8rsep r.{rreesa-r rlleru8e"rd aqr
ueSaq tuepnrs eql
dn-.,rnoy1o;
Suro8uo ur eJuerredxa leuort
-eJnpa er{l rarys esn
tuopuoJ lenlf,€
,strafgns raq ssesse ot
sde.u, ul pllnq
luapnls eql reqt lErtuassa
se^\ tr {p.tr .raq Suru8rsepar ur 'a-ro;a.reql
.Jor
-^eqaq otur salelsuerl rr;r
dluo elqprrsap sr 'srsaql
alenpe.rS.repun aql ur
pazrseqdua 'sapnlrlle osn-ruopuoo-ord ur
aseertur 1a11e.red V 'eurl
relo
esn uopuoJ ur eseeJf,ur
uE sB.&\
u8rsap rlf,Jeasal rrleu8erd s.luepnls
eql
ur leo8 ateturlln aqt
(3ur1u1{}
Jo dBm ua,trrp-uelqord aql
qtr^\ aurl uI
'lralord srseq]
..uanup-,{.ro
-e91,, s(tuepnls 3r.ll o1
pasoddo se r{JJeasal 6.ue^rJp-uelqoJd"
{q tueetu
sr ler{^\
sl slql 'urayqo.rd atrl-lear
E a^los ol lsorueroJ
pue rstg qsr.nr e ,(q
parrdsur a9 ot rrl{
pe.^aolle sltlJ 'u8rpered lrleu8e;d
aqt urqlr.^
lraford
"raq u8rsaper ol dlrunl.roddo
ue peq tuepnts srqt
'looqrs elenperS uI
'r{f,reaser Jrseq ur s8urpug ,(q ,{lateurlln
uodn pattedur eq IIrl\\
sans
-sI aJll-leer leql satunssE
lBrlt lePotu e .{q
paurerlsuor puE pallado.rd sum,
rlf,reeser eql 'af,uar.radxo
leuorle)npe rnorl-a^U eqt reqe
pue eroJeQ tq8r.l
ssrleuuollsanb SuualsrurluPe sP.^A
Jor^erlag 10 .,lroaq1 peuueld
Jr{t Surlsel
yo asodrnd rgrluans req
ro' PePaeu se./lr teql
IIV 'aruat.radxa leuollef,npa
er{l raryE pa8ueqr esn
uopuof, lentJe raqleq.^A pauJeal
rJlau Jer{f,reesrJ
aqr tpnfs Jeq to
ued parrnba.r e se
pezruSof,er tou se,^A
eurof,tno IErorAEq
-eq JJUrS tJor^er{eq ur
sa8ueqJ lentf,e ot ateleJ
srr{t plno./!\
ntoq'a.neuuorl
-sanb eqt uo sJarleq pup sepntrpe
asn-uopuoJ-ord parers rr*{t pasearf,ur
dno.r8 rrrlueror;V aql ur
sluapnrs eqt'prp daqr peapur
," 'JI puy lSursrrd
-rns eq srql plno/N 'sdno.r8 o.^At
raqto eql or pa.reduror se ue.r8o.rd
rrr]
-uef,orJv pau8rsap dllergnads eqr
o1 d18uo-rts lsoru puodsar
plnom slraI
-qns ruePnls ueJrreuv uBf,r{v
rer{ lEr{l sPlv\ srsaqtoddq
s(luepnls aql
qrleaq ye.raua8 Jo uorl
-ouro.rd eql uo pesnJoJ dno.r8 (.loJluoJ,,
e pue 'uorleluerJo rrJluaJo{V
uoxpnpo,tlul I gr
n o -
ub-
: e n -
; u r - rup r e s -
b e - the the : o f rres
rch : is-
lntroductiort I r q
research. Such a committee was intended to engage the young pet'ple
more fully in developing and participating in the project by engenderinq
a sense o{ ..
ownership" in the research and to provide ctucial input al'out developing the program from their own point of view as participants.
In designing the program, the goal was to put together as rich an ed-
ucational experience as feasible so as to maximize impact. If the student's
program for AIDS education could be shown to have a major impact, and if her results were sufficiently replicated, then this level of impact could become a "standard." In other words, this program could become a model case study. Later attempts to isolate the "effective ingredients"
of the program and to eliminate other components that were not effec- tive-in order to make the program more cost-effective-could then be judged against the programs's original standard of effectiveness'
The design of the study began with two considerations. The study had
limited resources, and prior knowledge of the subculture of the partici-
pants argued that there was a high probability that the Afrocentric AIDS education group would be more effective than either of the control groups in the original study. On the basis of these factors, the student de-
cided to focus all the available resources on (a) enriching the Afrocentric
group intervention, So aS to increase condom use aS much as possible
over base rate at the beginning of the study, (b) creating a "no interven-
tion" control group, that is, a group of demographically comparable sub-
jects who received no intervention, but who would be monitored in the
same way as the intervention group to assess whether the latter increased
their condom use relative to the control group, and (c) following up the impact of the study over an extended period of time'
An important aspect of the program's impact certainly has to be fol- low-up. One isolated, five-hour educational experience surely doesn't seem sufficient if we are trying to change teenagers' practices regarding sex and condom use.
Magnify this one undergraduate thesis thousands of times, and add to
this number tens of thousands of masters' theses, doctoral dissertations,
and academic research projects conducted in psychology each year. The
studies, and commentaries on them, have accumulated in huge numbers over psychology,s last one hundred years. (As of June, 1998, ,,psycINFO," the American Psychological Association's electronic data- base of formal publications in disciplinary psychology, was listing
r , o 6 5 , 5 7 7 r e c o r d s o f p u b l i s h e d m a t e r i a l s i n c e r 8 8 7 ! ) T h e s e a r e t h e r e -
sources going primarily into standard, scientific, theory-driven research.
her r e d t i s he- l i n u s e zed av- ent c a -
I l l ) ,
rhe
l m -
r d i - r i n
l n g )S,' o w e s e
, r g -
ted
eJa/v\,l.re pue'satpnls IEIJ9S'af,uatf,S'gleu
SE qJnS'slralqns loot{ls IEuoIl
-lp€{
.uorleN lprnllnlrlFl
orv e/N I E
(efuauadx[ ueflroluv puB
]glled
/uEJIJaLuV-upISV arll gaf,uauodxg JIuEdsIH
eI{I (efuauadxg ueJIJaIuV
-uBlrrJV eI{I 'oruauadxg uerIreIUV
a^IleN aL{I (drlunuuoJ
Pue looqls
aql uI slooU JnO
:ree.,t Iooqls lsrg el{f
PalnlllsuoJ I'{JItl.lA 's>laarvr xts
Surtsel qf,ee (sarueql xls
Jo salres e Pedola^eP loot{rs aqr
'Pooqroql{8leu
slr ]o dlrsra.a,rp er{t
uo Surrrre.rq 'leporu Sutsrurord
lsoru e PaleeJJ seLI
teqt Ioot{JS dreluouale IEnSuIIIq
dB.u.-olg'lernllnrtllntu
? :aa{ne^\IIIAJ
ur JooIllS Leuletg aqf
'qsrJBuE ul 'lo daulerg elanlsg e-I
aqr lnoqe ureal
pue aseqe|eP eql sseJPPe
PFo) lrI[JUo) crJsrngurl pue
'lercet'cruqfa ur sr
irq,looqJs dlrr e re^o Burlel led'ur.rd
looq)s d.reluauale
^\ou e'snq1
'suollenlrs Jsst
Io spur>l f,urf,eds ur
sl€o8 Jo sadfl uleuaf,
L{sIIdIuoJf,e 01 Irol!\ suollue^
-relur leq^A lnoqe suorlpzrleroua8
PesnloJ l.llerrreulSerd plard o1
seser Jo
sad,{r f,urJeds ssorJe ses.,(leue
a^Ileredluof, lJnPuol PInoA\ slslJoeg}
pue
srer{freasau .as€r la8rel eql SurssarPPE
roJ seulleprn8 pue suollsaSSns
roJ
Sa IP nlS as oq ld old ua Pu eu oI lE nlI S}
e8 Je }a q}
Pa qJ le l'u }s aq re qr as Bq el€
P
*{F ur.
serpnls espt osoqt ssJffg
uaql Plnof uoll€nlls aS€f,
J€lnJIU€d 9 Jo
stxaluor pue sleo8 Pu€
sulolqold aql r{lI1Y\ 8ur>porvr
sJeuollllferd 'seIJoB
-otef snorrE^
fq aseqerep pazlr€lndluof, e
olul PezIuESro aq uaqr
Plnol
Serpnts esef, asaql 'SaIPnfs
sSeJ ellsual{OJduror 'ctletuals'ts qll'&\
Pallg
sleurnoI e^eq plno^\ plou
aql ,sarpnls dno-13 ((ue^IrP-l.roeq],,
qll^\ PelH
sl?urnoI s.fppo]
Jo PPetsuI 'tlf,ruosar
IEJISoloqr,{sd Jo lueluor Pue
snroJ
eql uo lrtdur
\Ef,llf,EId f,IlEtueIP e^€g Plno^\
ur8rpered flleruSerd 'peseq
-as€f, e 'o uoll€lueuraldtul
(Snf,o] I{lJea-o1-u.^A.oP S}I t{}11}\
}uelslsuo-)
uorsr^
^\al{
v :sleurnof s,d3o1oql'(s4
'tnoqE seJ€J lsolu trIlqnd
aqr
legl sru€r8ord lerros f,grf,ads
ur slPo8 lellos relnfluPd
eql 8uI^eII{fe uo
rar.{lgr lnq s^\EI lesra^I;n
Surnt.rap uo }ou st 'uaql 'snro;
rleql 'sualqord
esaql sruarredxe oq^\ slenpr^rPur
eql t{]I^\
.,{la^IrEroqellof, Pue dlrra.ltp
{ro^/\ dr.ll .se^lastueqt luasard
sualqord lecrSoloqrdsd Surssard r{f,Ir{'/t\
uI
ser'Id asoql ur inq
suroorss€' a3allor pue selrol,roq'I
uI lou lrolv\ dtgl
...Ieella8,, slsrSoloqrdsd (uaql
"tSOloqrdSd rrtBruSBJd
(POluaAuIaJ e uI
'drrlear depdrana Jo Plro^L
er{l uI eJuaret
-JIp e Surleur ;o
63urn3re urB
6af,u3r{l JalBeJS I
qfnu e qll.^a s]f,eford ua^
-rrp-uelqord ,lrleurSe.rd olur
PauSISePar eq Plnor selPnls asaql
Jo requnu
leriuersqns B (rlf,reaser
luapnls e^rl€rlsnlll rno to
lcalord eqr 'III PUV
uorpnPollul
07 I
rantial m-dri-
; a dif-
real. "
places work these rather
s that
Introduction I zt
.rrerwoven into each theme. Moreover, within each of them, teachers :aught one entire segment almost entirely in Spanish. An example was
"lnsect Life on the River," which was that portion of the fourth-grade ,cience curriculum that was linked to the first theme on the local com- runity.'s
Adopting the pragmatic perspective means' then, that psychology's inowledge base would in some ways look like that of court law. The
:asic knowledge unit in court law is the completed individual case. These
-ases are then used to develop guidelines and precedents for new cases.
in addition, legal scholars and researchers analyze the collection of cases
:o derive general judicial guidelines for practical policymaking.
Two Faces of Psychology: "I'Jatttre" uersus "Cultttre"
-\ theme that organizes this book is differentiation between the natural
,ciences and the humanities, that is, between the sources of modernisr
.rnd postmodernist psychology, respectively. To understand this concept.
rt is useful to employ Baumeister's-t5 division of reality into two broad cat-
:gories, corresponding roughly to nature and culture. The natural sci-
ences primarily study the former, and the humanities the latter. The first
.ategory involves physical things, such as trees' rocks, tables, water, \\'in-
dows, dogs, and electricity. Modern science tells us that these objects are
made up of atoms and molecules and follow certain natural laws'
The second category is meaning and intention'
Meaning is real [because] people act on the basis of meanings, and thesr'
actions produce physical consequences. Buildings, for example, do not
come into being by the mere confluence of natural forces. Buildings erist
as meanings (such as ideas in the architect's mind) before they erist as
physical things. Blueprints, contracts, zoning restrictions, building codes.
and other meanings play a vital role in the creation of a building. . . '
[\7hile] meaning is real, . . . [it] is not the same thing as phvsical rerrlirr.
. . . Language is not made up of atoms and molecules. It is possible to de-
scribe a book in terms of its physical properties, such as the chemtcal com-
position of the paper and the number of small ink squiggles on the p'rges'
but such a description would completely miss the point of rn'hat a book is.'-
The study of white mice running through laboratorv mazes, of human
beings as "information-processing systems," or of personality as a collec-
tion of behavioral traits exemplifies a psychology based in nature, a disci- case-
rn the rrnals r r n a l s
udies cate- rtexts n the u d i e s chers t\-pes
nter- d s o f I t h a t : and
ol in rhat rf its sting r the
c a n - Lcan/
:adi-
r\'€fe
_ u n r u r e tr *u r o 3 u r ur B e r a q'
;r';T ;J 13 ; j:;
ffi ;:r3,;:
j r;L::j;
suorrJ' UaAo",rr*oJ;;il; e{rJ
e^lo^ur ]pql ,,,rusrJorAprro9,,pu" ,lqanoqr
sesnJoJ rrrrql\'1sb"1'o1
sruarua^o.' alf,snu Burtrrpard uo posoddo se)Ieurue lerrdll -xe Sururear
-slleluaur,, or 8ur11o'tuof, pu'yo d-roaqr .uorlue pe^Jo,rur .,{Boloqr aqt uI dpnls eqr .soS6r luea(u srqt Burureel leturup;o aqt teqr aqr urqtr^{ qJreeseJ ;ofeu JectSoJoqc,{sd -fsd ur JoJ lw aqr .,paseq uaqlt .so96r yo drolsrq ruo,J suorleu'ldxe orpr aqr se-/!\ ,{3010qrisd ((pas'g_eJnllnf,,, .u-rapourlsod qt*rir,rru per'ur.'op rq ue'aq stderuoc lrrun drnluar aladuor or '{pea aqr -arnJeu" 'urapou
elePlPuer erll pre.'v\ol sapntltte
a^ltrsod sasearc", ,Or*]l
Trt.1;
U; Jo af,ueJJnJf,o ruaurrse^"' ,r"r"*-1r, A\eu ur 'ssauln;a.r'J (sJo{Jo,^a pue ,ruaurdrnba sa^rlueJur xel Iecrrrlod orrrleSau -sruo^p' satuedruoJ JoJ eql arns uJ slre.rr sruJal e aro} upunq Burlro_r8 ror^eqeq ^\or{ or strert lrlleuos Jo stua8 eg or sertrlua sB pup slaueld qtoq ,srualsls eqr eJnper llparip rrs lJorlp pooJ ,rusrue8ro u^{o rreqt seJroJ pue {usruJepou ,lse-rluol a^rrrsod'sluacselopp saqsnd slrerrp VNA pue Bur.,rrl or lall'red op teqt pue ,r,rr1oin aprn8 ,pr"^rt llruanbar; srql ,e.suortJe e^eq lou uo sa^llueJur roC .Burzrrluou Jo drr.rerndod acuapuadapur s(lenpl^lpul Jo suolleueldxa aJ*u alrr{^\ letr8olorsdqd aql IIr^ eert sue{unq sn.\erl dlquasse ue se ,alduexa .:or,reqeg suorteueldxe s^{olle erE puE rol^eqaq aql luaudolarap 's8ue8 aSeuaat esEaJJuI eutl -ted'sazeul q8norql -serd ;aad -le f,rttet8 oqr Jo -uou Jo ueunq to -araql lou Jllslueqtetu ur
pue ,saldnor .xeldUOr ot ruroy Or znoy eqr oseerf,ur asBaJJUr 'xas a;es or noog Bn.rp;o ftuangJa r,rltuoJ eJnpal 'sruerSo-rd uortetrlrqeqar peIJJeU ur 8ur r.{f,ns e BurdJddy se sarpnts z11or{ rileur8 etd, dolaaap ol or arrrrradsrad a-rnrrnr aqr luatua8eueu a^rtJaJta e rc! -snoq otlqnd splar"t a'rtroads'ad
-tuouegd asoqr Jo af,uesse
eqr sesol dlge,tar.rrarrr suorlJ,
rno *";t;:i ,sue1d ,suorlualu, pue ,s1eo8 Surzrouag .sasod;nd -uPetu asaql
,r3*.r"r*
Jo qr^{
e uI paqseruua ,{lqedeosaul
ejll uetunq -sl
,azrrlladsrad
srql uoJC Sursnro; dt[euorluelur aldoed uo sluoSe se rrer{' Jo 'suorrf,p u'4Ao
pue a,trrradsrad e qrn5 uet.,ng sluasa.rd ur Jor^er{eq JO SruJer sseusnorJsuoJ
ts"'sJU38e to lJnPuoJ leuolleJ
eI{I,, sasseduorua oJnrlnf, aIFIA\
,..srJaI se stdar puBlstepun ,s;arJaq d8ologcirO'y .srural ,rr,{I .Jor^eqaq ur pepuno.r8 ,suor]ualu, ,rrp,,lrlle se^Io^ur ornteu s8ur-rq arntlnf, 'ssacord leDos JPsneJ eqt,, t{Jns ur [PJnllnJ pue suollJerolur -go Jo o1 saloJ -uoJ lBualetuuou lectsdqd 'a1qe,r-rasqo ur rorler1aq
uerunq 11e ureldxa ot
sldua11e reqr aurld
uotpnPoqul
zz I