Words of philosophical character

The following table provides us with the most frequently used words of philosophical character:

Table 1: Words of philosophical character

Word Frequency ‰

ἀρετή / virtue 4.82

ψυχή / soul 4.82

In the following example, we see the impact of the studies of Saint Basil in Athens, where he studied philosophy:

(1) Ἐμοὶ μὲν γὰρ δοκεῖ οὐδὲν ἕτερον ἢ προτρέπων ἡμᾶς ἐπ᾿ ἀρετήν, καὶ προκαλούμενος ἅπαντας ἀγαθοὺς εἶναι, ταῦτα διελθεῖν καὶ ὥστε μὴ καταμαλακισθέντας πρὸς τοὺς πόνους προαποστῆναι τοῦ τέλους. Καὶ μέντοι, καὶ εἴ τις ἕτερος ἐοικότα τούτοις τὴν ἀρετὴν ὕμνησεν, ὡς εἰς ταὐτὸν ἡμῖν φέροντας τοὺς λόγους ἀποδεχώμεθα.

Now it seems to me that he had no other purpose in saying these things than so to exhort us to virtue, and so to incite us to bravery, that we may not weaken our efforts before we reach the goal. And certainly, if any other man praises virtue in a like strain, we will receive his words with pleasure, since our aim is a common one. (paragraph 5)

The repetition of the lexical item ἀρετή⁸ / virtue indicates that the emotional value of this lexical item is the core point of the views of Saint Basil. Saint Basil uses this word repeatedly as he supports that μόνη δὲ κτημάτων ἡ ἀρετὴ ἀναφαίρετον, καὶ ζῶντι καὶ τελευτήσαντι παραμένουσα / But virtue is the only possession that is sure, and that remains with us whether living or dead.

Saint Basil also states that, if we acquire the virtue in our lives, then we can have balance in our souls. The following example certifies the above syllogism:

(2) Οὐ μικρὸν γὰρ τὸ ὄφελος, οἰκειότητά τινα καὶ συνήθειαν ταῖς τῶν νέων ψυχαῖς τῆς ἀρετῆς ἐγγενέσθαι· ἐπείπερ ἀμετάστατα πέφυκεν εἶναι τὰ τῶν τοιούτων μαθήματα, δι᾿ ἁπαλότητα τῶν ψυχῶν εἰς βάθος ἐνσημαινόμενα.

For it is of no small advantage that virtue become a habit with the souls of youth, for the lessons of youth make a deep impression, because the soul is then plastic, and therefore they are likely to be indelible. (paragraph 5)

His main advice is to follow the way of virtue. The repetition helps him promote his message. What he proposes to the hearers is to acquire virtue because this can provide balance to their souls. Seeing

8 The value of virtue is an issue that also puzzled Plato in his dialogue Protagoras in which he tries to establish whether it can be taught or not. Aristotle also stated in Politica that the acquisition of virtue should be the goal of the educational system.

that the hearers live in a period of time when there is tension between paganism and Christianity, what they should do is to study the heathen books with critical thought and focus on virtue. Virtue can help them in such a difficult time to ensure the balance in their lives.

4. Saint Basil's use of parts-of-speech 4.1. Verbs

I the following, we will address the most frequently used verbs. Saint Basil prefers to use the impersonal syntax more frequently than expressions of personal stance. The verb οἶμαι/ think is has a very limited use (0.02%) in his address, a fact that strongly suggests that Saint Basil desires to his imbue message with objectivity and ensure the detachment.⁹ The particularities of this text cannot be particularities of all Byzantine authors, because each author had his personal style, which he would consistently follow in his attempt to persuade others and achieve his communicative goal.

We hope that similar studies¹⁰ by other scholars will follow so as to extract overall conclusions about the similarities and the differences of the style of Byzantine authors.

Table 2 below lists the three most frequent verbs in Saint Basil's address:

Table 2. The most frequent verbs

Word Frequency ‰

ἐστι / is 5.73

λέγεται / it is said 1.47

δεῖ / must 0.92

*Only the 3^rd person singular forms of the words have been counted.

In general, ἐστι / is is a high-frequency verb in Greek, as it has a variety of functions. In most of our cases, this verb functions as a personal verb. This also applies to the verb λέγεται / it is said since, in most of our cases, it operates as a personal verb (60%) and in about 40% of the cases as an impersonal verb. The verb δεῖ / must is a deontic modal verb (Loos et al. 2004) that is particularly interesting when it comes to its functions in Saint Basil's address. Consider the following example:

(3) Πρῶτον μὲν οὖν τοῖς παρὰ τῶν ποιητῶν, ἵν᾿ ἐντεῦθεν ἄρξωμαι, ἐπεὶ παντοδαποί τινές εἰσι κατὰ τοὺς λόγους, μὴ πᾶσιν ἐφεξῆς προσέχειν τὸν νοῦν, ἀλλ᾿ ὅταν μὲν τὰς τῶν ἀγαθῶν ἀνδρῶν πράξεις ἢ λόγους ὑμῖν διεξίωσιν, ἀγαπᾶν τε καὶ ζηλοῦν, καὶ ὅτι μάλιστα πειρᾶσθαι τοιούτους εἶναι, ὅταν δὲ ἐπὶ μοχθηροὺς ἄνδρας ἔλθωσι τῇ μιμήσει, ταῦτα δεῖ φεύγειν ἐπιφρασσομένους τὰ ὦτα οὐχ ἧττον ἢ τὸν Ὀδυσσέα φασὶν ἐκεῖνοι τὰ τῶν Σειρήνων μέλη.

To begin with the poets, since their writings are of all degrees of excellence, you should not study all of their poems without omitting a single word. When they recount the words and deeds of good men, you should both love and imitate them, earnestly emulating such conduct.

But when they portray base conduct, you must flee from them and stop up your ears, as Odysseus is said to have fled past the song of the sirens, for familiarity with evil writings paves the way for evil deeds. (paragraph 4)

The main concern of Saint Basil is to persuade the hearers into adopting the way of studying the heathen books that he advocates. What is required is critical thought. The verb δεῖ / must is inserted into a directive speech act which promotes the message of Saint Basil as a directive obligation that the hearers should follow and adopt in their lives. The only thing they have to do is to study the writings of the ancient Greek literature, reminding them of the criteria of usefulness in their lives.

9 For the mechanism of detachment see Chafe (1982).

10 For similar approaches and studies about the style of the byzantine authors see Alexandropoulos (2013abc, 2014ab, 2015).

Once again the speaker integrates into his text a example pertaining to Odysseus and the sirens thus generating a sense of vividness in his message and representativeness, so as to make it be absorbed by the hearers.

(4) Τὸ γὰρ τὴν πᾶσαν σπουδὴν εἰσφέρεσθαι ὅπως ὡς κάλλιστα αὐτῷ τὸ σῶμα ἕξοι οὐ διαγινώσκοντός ἐστιν ἑαυτόν, οὐδὲ συνιέντος τοῦ σοφοῦ παραγγέλματος, ὅτι οὐ τὸ ὁρώμενόν ἐστιν ὁ ἄνθρωπος, ἀλλά τινος δεῖ περιττοτέρας σοφίας, δι᾿ ἧς ἕκαστος ἡμῶν ὅστις ποτέ ἐστιν ἑαυτὸν ἐπιγνώσεται.

Indeed, to be very zealous in making the body appear very beautiful is not the mark of a man who knows himself, or who feels the force of the wise maxim: 'Not that which is seen is the man,' for it requires a higher faculty for any one of us, whoever he may be, to know himself.

(paragraph 9)

As Saint Basil would have it, people must focus more on working with their souls than with our bodies. In this example, the verb δεῖ/it requires aids Saint Basil in expressing his intentionality about this issue. The insertion of this verb into a directive speech act promotes the message of Saint Basil as a directive obligation that the hearers should follow in their lives.

4.2. Adjectives

Saint Basil utilizes a number of adjectives in order to describe, evaluate entities of the text and direct the audience to certain actions. The following table provides us with the most frequently used adjectives:

Table 3: Τhe most frequent adjectives*

Adjectives Frequency ‰

αἰσχρὸν / shameful 1.15

ἄξιον / worthy 0.92

μεθεκτέον / to be taken into consideration 0.69 προσεκτέον / to be respected 0.46 παραδεκτέον / to be accepted 0.22

*Only adjectives in the nominative/accusative neutral were counted

Now, consider the following example:

(5) Ἀλλ᾿ ἐκεῖνα αὐτῶν μᾶλλον ἀποδεξόμεθα, ἐν οἷς ἀρετὴν ἐπήνεσαν, ἢ πονηρίαν διέβαλον. Ὡς γὰρ τῶν ἀνθέων τοῖς μὲν λοιποῖς ἄχρι τῆς εὐωδίας ἢ τῆς χρόας ἐστὶν ἡ ἀπόλαυσις, ταῖς μελίτταις δ᾿ ἄρα καὶ μέλι λαμβάνειν ἀπ᾿ αὐτῶν ὑπάρχει, οὕτω δὴ κἀνταῦθα τοῖς μὴ τὸ ἡδὺ καὶ ἐπίχαρι μόνον τῶν τοιούτων λόγων διώκουσιν ἔστι τινὰ καὶ ὠφέλειαν ἀπ᾿ αὐτῶν εἰς τὴν ψυχὴν ἀποθέσθαι. Κατὰ πᾶσαν δὴ οὖν τῶν μελιττῶν τὴν εἰκόνα τῶν λόγων ἡμῖν μεθεκτέον.

Ἐκεῖναί τε γὰρ οὔτε ἅπασι τοῖς ἄνθεσι παραπλησίως ἐπέρχονται, οὔτε μὴν οἷς ἂν ἐπιπτῶσιν ὅλα φέρειν ἐπιχειροῦσιν, ἀλλ᾿ ὅσον αὐτῶν ἐπιτήδειον πρὸς τὴν ἐργασίαν λαβοῦσαι, τὸ λοιπὸν χαίρειν ἀφῆκαν· ἡμεῖς τε, ἣν σωφρονῶμεν, ὅσον οἰκεῖον ἡμῖν καὶ συγγενὲς τῇ ἀληθείᾳ παρ᾿

αὐτῶν κομισάμενοι, ὑπερβησόμεθα τὸ λειπόμενον.

But on the other hand we shall receive gladly those passages in which they praise virtue or condemn vice. For just as bees know how to extract honey from flowers, which to men are agreeable only for their fragrance and color, even so here also those who look for something more than pleasure and enjoyment in such writers may derive profit for their souls. Now, then, altogether after the manner of bees must we use these writings, for the bees do not visit all the flowers without discrimination, nor indeed do they seek to carry away entire those

upon which they light, but rather, having taken so much as is adapted to their needs, they let the rest go. So we, if wise, shall take from heathen books whatever befits us and is allied to the truth, and shall pass over the rest. And just as in culling roses we avoid the thorns, from such writings as these we will gather everything useful, and guard against the noxious.

(paragraph 4)

IHere, Saint Basil makes an attempt to persuade the hearers of this text to follow a particular way in the study of the passages, taking from heathen books whatever befits them and is allied to the truth.

For this reason, the speaker uses the verbal adjective μεθεκτέον / to be taken into consideration, which gives him the opportunity to present his message as a directive obligation. In this way, Saint Basil leads, through a directive speech act, the hearers to do things based on the study of heathen books. The speaker also utilizes the example of the as a strategy to empower his syllogism and generate vividness in his text, conveying to the audience that they must have critical thought and they should not accept everything without discrimination, but only what is useful. This view is also repeated in the following lines of the text, again through the use of adjectives:

(6) Ἀλλ᾿, ὅπερ ἐξ ἀρχῆς ἔλεγον, πάλιν γὰρ εἰς ταὐτὸν ἐπανίωμεν, οὐ πάντα ἐφεξῆς παραδεκτέον ἡμῖν, ἀλλ᾿ ὅσα χρήσιμα. Καὶ γὰρ αἰσχρὸν τῶν μὲν σιτίων τὰ βλαβερὰ διωθεῖσθαι, τῶν δὲ μαθημάτων ἃ τὴν ψυχὴν ἡμῶν τρέφει μηδένα λόγον ἔχειν, ἀλλ᾿ ὥσπερ χειμάρρουν παρασύροντας ἅπαν τὸ προστυχὸν ἐμβάλλεσθαι.

But let us return to the same thought with which we started, namely, that we should not accept everything without discrimination, but only what is useful. For it would be shameful should we reject injurious foods, yet should take no thought about the studies which nourish our souls, but as a torrent should sweep along all that came near our path and appropriate it.

(paragraph 8)

In this extract Saint Basil utilizes the verbal adjective οὐ παραδεκτέον / not to be accepted in a directive speech act in order to lead the audience to this point of view, which was also expressed in the first lines of his address (in paragraph 4). The adjective χρήσιμα / useful is utilized by Saint Basil with a view to describing the content of heathen books that the speakers should adopt and follow in their lives. This way, Saint Basil introduces again into his text the criteria of usefulness. In the following lines, he justifies his point of view by using the adjective αἰσχρὸν / shameful (as an elliptic verbal phrase with the omitted verb ἐστί / is) and through this lexical choice of impersonal syntax he ensures the detachment and directs them to adopt a particular way of life. The torrent image imbues his syllogism with vividness and advises the hearers to act in an opposite way, taking thought of their studies.

4.3. Pronouns

Table 4 on page 116 provides us with the most frequently used pronouns. It is obvious from the table that Saint Basil uses more personal pronouns with first and second plural reference.

This choice is justified by the fact that he speaks as a delegate of his religious system and his speech is addressed to young people. The pronouns with first plural reference are introduced much more than the personal pronouns with second plural reference, a fact that allows us to state that this text becomes a means for the presentation of the religious system that he supports.

Table 4: Personal pronouns used

We Christians, young men, hold that this human life is not a supremely precious thing, nor do we recognize anything as unconditionally a blessing which benefits us in this life only.

Neither pride of ancestry, nor bodily strength, nor beauty, nor greatness, nor the esteem of all men, nor kingly authority, nor, indeed, whatever of human affairs may be called great, do we consider worthy of desire, or the possessors of them as objects of envy; but we place our hopes upon the things which are beyond, and in preparation for the life eternal do all things that we do. (paragraph 2)

In the second paragraph of his text, Saint Basil leads to actions; in particular, he defines the background of the religious system he supports. This way, he establishes a useful foundation for the organization of the following arguments concerning the value of virtue in the study of heathen books. He speaks in first plural reference and thus he creates an indirect antithesis between what he and his supporters believe and what the world of paganism and ancient Greek literature state. The above lines serve as a background, not only for his arguments but also, in a way, for the mind of the hearers. With the contents of the above lines activated in the listeners, we can assume that it would

be much easier for them to understand the following arguments of Saint Basil on the study of the ancient Greek literature:

(8) Καὶ ῥητόρων δὲ τὴν περὶ τὸ ψεύδεσθαι τέχνην οὐ μιμησόμεθα. Οὔτε γὰρ ἐν δικαστηρίοις, οὔτ᾿ ἐν ταῖς ἄλλαις πράξεσιν ἐπιτήδειον ἡμῖν τὸ ψεῦδος, τοῖς τὴν ὀρθὴν ὁδὸν καὶ ἀληθῆ προελομένοις τοῦ βίου, οἷς τὸ μὴ δικάζεσθαι νόμῳ προστεταγμένον ἐστίν (Satellite). Ἀλλ᾿ ἐκεῖνα αὐτῶν μᾶλλον ἀποδεξόμεθα, ἐν οἷς ἀρετὴν ἐπήνεσαν, ἢ πονηρίαν διέβαλον (Nucleus).

And certainly we shall not follow the example of the rhetoricians in the art of lying. For neither in the courts of justice nor in other business affairs will falsehood be of any help to us Christians, who, having chosen the straight and true path of life, are forbidden by the gospel to go to law (Satellite). But on the other hand we shall receive gladly those passages in which they praise virtue or condemn vice (Nucleus). (paragraph 4)

In this example, the plural personal pronoun helps Saint Basil speak as a delegate of the Christians and their beliefs. As regards coherence, we can note that Saint Basil organizes his thoughts through the rhetorical relation of antithesis, posing in the nucleusof this relation his main view about what needs to be done in the future, as illustrated in Figure 1 below:

Figure 1: Antithesis

Καὶ ῥητόρων … ἐστίν (Satellite); Ἀλλ᾿ ἐκεῖνα…διέβαλον (Nucleus).

5. Saint Basil's use of rhetorical devices

In document Globe A Journal of Language, Culture and Communication Theme: Functionality of Language (Sider 115-120)